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THE 

HANDBOOK 

FOR 

I  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

HUGH  FINDLAY 


ii 


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THE    HANDBOOK    FOR 
PRACTICAL    FARMERS 


THE  HANDBOOK  FOR 
PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

DEALING  WITH  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT 
ASPECTS  OF  FARMING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


EDITED  BY 
HUGH  FINDLAY,  B.  S.  A. 

LECTURER    ON   HORTICULTURE 
COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


SPECIAL     CHAPTERS    DEALING     WITH     FARM    PROBLEMS 
AND     PRACTICES     BY     PRACTICAL     EXPERTS     li?:  V 
DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  .     ■      .  , 


HiLUSTRATED 


D.     APPLETON     AND     COMPANY 

NEW  YOEK  AND  LONDON 

1920 


COPYRIGHT,    1920,  BY 

D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


MAIN  library-agriculture:  dept. 


PRITfTED  IN  THE  ITNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA 


PREFACE 

The  leaders  in  American  farm-life  to-day  realize  that  the 
farmer  must  be  not  only  a  good  business  man,  but  he  must  also 
be  acquainted  with  the  science  of  agriculture.  Therefore  this 
book  aims  to  deal  with  the  business  side  of  farming  and  to 
assemble  the  scientific  knowledge  of  agriculture  as  studied  and 
practiced  by  a  number  of  experts. 

In  order  to  make  this  practical  knowledge  more  accessible  to 
the  farmer,  technical  terms  have  been  eliminated  and  an  easily 
comprehended  terminology  has  been  maintained  throughout  the 
book. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  many  experiment  stations  for  their 
cooperation  in  supplying  information  and  illustrations,  credit 
for  which  is  given  in  the  pages  of  this  book. 

He  is  particularly  pleased  to  acknowledge  his  deep  obliga- 
tions to  the  International  Harvester  Company,  the  Du  Pont 
Powder  Works,  and  the  Gould  Force  Pump  Company,  for  their 
contributions. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  due  the  Country  Gentleman,  the 
Wisconsin  Farmer,  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  and  the  Macmillan 
Company  for  extracts  taken  from  their  publications. 

The  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  has  given  valuable 
service  to  the  editor  in  furnishing  material  and  in  supplying 
bulletins  from  which  extracts  and  illustrations  have  been  taken. 

The  farmer  and  his  family  are  the  most  potent  factors  in 
making  the  United  States  the  greatest  producing  nation  as  well 
as  the  greatest  nation  of  happy  homes.  It  is  therefore  hoped 
that  this  book  will  aid  in  increasing  production  and  happiness 
among  the  tillers  of  the  soil. 

Hugh  Findlay,  Editor 

Columbia  University 


4S5338 


CONTRIBUTORS 

A.  G.  McClLL,  B.Sc,    (Ohio  State),  Ph.D.    (Johns  Hopkina)  :      Soil  Management, 
Manures,  and  Fertilizers. 
In  charge  of  soil  investigators,  Maryland  Experiment  Station,  College  Park,  Md. 

R.  G.  Weggans,  B.Sc.    (Missouri),  Ph.D.    (Cornell):     Corn,  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley, 
Rye,  and  Rotations. 
Assistant  Professor  of  Farm  Crops,  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

F.  W.  Oldenbxjrgh,  B.Sc.   (Wisconsin)  :     Hay,  Legumes,  Forage,  and  Soiling  Crops. 
Extension  Agronomist,  Maryland  State  College  of  Agriculture,  College  Park,  Md. 

J,  R.  Fain,  B.W.   (Tennessee)  :     The  Culture  of  Cotton. 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  University  of  Georgia,  Athens,  Ga. 

W.  W.  Garner,  A.B.  (South  Carolina) ,  Ph.D.  (Johns  Hopkins)  :    Culture  of  Tobacco. 
Tobacco  Expert,  Washington,  D.  C. 

A.  G.  Smith,  Jr.,  B.S.  (  )  :     Culture  of  the  Sweet  Potato. 

Instructor  in  Horticulture,  Polytechnic  Institute,  Virginia. 

C.  W.  Ward,  B.Sc.   (Ohio)  :     Fertilizers  for  the  White  Potato. 

Extension  Specialist  in  Horticulture,  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  East  Lans- 
ing, Mich. 

William  C.  Sanctuary,  B.Sc.   (Massachusetts  Agriculture)  :     Poultry. 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  New  York   State  School  of 
Agriculture,  ^Morrisville,  N".  Y. 

John  McNtjtt,  B.Sc.   (Ohio)  :     Dairy  Cattle. 

Professor   Animal    Husbandry,   Massachusetts    Agricultural    College,   Amherst, 
Mass. 

M.  W.  Harper,  B.Sc.   (Ohio),  M.S.   (Illinois)  :     Horse. 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Cornell,  Ithaca,  N".  Y. 

James  R.  Dice,  B.Sc.   (Michigan  Agricultural),  M.A.   (Missouri)  :     Hogs. 

Professor  of  Dairy  Husbandry,  New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Morris- 
ville,  N.  Y. 

R.  W.  Duck,  B.Sc,  (Missouri),  M.S.  (Syracuse)  :     Sheep. 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Syracuse  University. 

H.  F.  Baldwin,  B.Sc.  (Minnesota)  :     Milk  Production. 
Dairy  Expert,  Washington,  D.  C. 


viii  CONTRIBUTORS 

R.  P.  Pbichard,  B.Sc.    (Dartmouth),  M.F.   (Yale)  :     Care  of  the  Farm  Wood  Lot. 
Assistant  Professor  of  Silviculture,  New. York  State  College  of  Forestry,  Syra- 
cuse University. 

C.  CitAiG  AND  A.  La  Motte:     The  Use  of  Explosives  on  the  Farm. 
Experts  on  Explosives,  Du  Pont  Powder  Works. 

Edgar  W.  Cooley:     The  Care  of  Tools  on  the  Farm. 

Expert  on  Farm  Tools,  Agriculture  Extension  Department,  International  Har- 
vester Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

J.  H.  Hewett,  B.Sc.   (Vermont),  D.V.M.   (Cornell)  :     Some  of  the  Common  Diseases 
of  Anijnals  and  Remedies. 
State  Veterinary  of  Madison  County,  N".  Y.;  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science, 
New  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Morrisville,  N.  Y. 

E.  F.  Philips,  B.A.  (Allegheny),  Ph.D.  (Pennsylvania)  :     Bee-Keeping  on  the  Farm 
Agriculturist,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash 
ington,  D.  C. 

W.  T,  L.  Taliaferro,  A.B.   (William  and  Mary),  D.Sc.   (Maryland  Agricultural)  : 
Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Farm  Buildings. 
Professor  of  Farm  Management,  Maryland  Agricultural  College,  College  Park 
Md. 

A.  P.  Yerkes:     Farm  Engines  and  Their  Care. 

Formerly  Assistant  Agriculturist,  Office  of  Farm  Management,  U.  S.  Depart 
ment  of  Agriculture.  Now  Expert  on  Gas  Engines,  Maryland  Agricultural 
College,  College  Park,  Md. 

E.  0.  FiPPiN,  B.S.A.   (Ohio)  :     Drainage  on  the  Farm. 

Extension  Professor  of  Soils  Technique,  Cornell,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

James  B.  Mobman,  M.A. :     Benefits  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  System. 
Assistant  Secretary,  Federal  Farm  Loan  Banks,  Washington,  D.  C. 

H.  T.  ScoviL,  A.B.  (Illinois)  :     Farm  Records. 

Certified  Public  Accountant,  Assistant  Professor  of  Accounting,  University  o: 
Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

H.  F.  INIiLLER:     Running  Water  for  Mouse  and  Outbuildings. 

Water  Power  Expert,  Gould's  Manufacturing  Company,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  '  PAGE 

I.  Soil  Management 1 

II.  Land  Drainage 32 

III.  Corn,  Wheat,  Oats,  Barley,  Kye,  and  Rotation  of  Small  Grains  46 

IV.  Forage  and  Soiling  Crops 84 

V.  Potatoes 110 

VI.  Tobacco 130 

VII.  Cotton 135 

VIII.  The  Farmer's  Orchard 140 

IX.  Bush  Fruits  and  Strawberries 167 

X.  Vine  Fruits 181 

XI.  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 187 

XIL  The  Vegetable  Garden 198 

XIII.  Chickens 223 

XIV.  The  Horse  247 

XV.  Dairy  Cattle   288 

XVI.  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm 313 

XVII.  Sheep 349 

XVIII.  Swine 364 

XIX.  The  Cueing  of  Meats  on  the  Farm 379 

XX.  Bees  on  the  Farm 387 

XXI.  The  Farmer's  Wood  Lot 395 

XXII.  Location  and  Arrangement  of  Farm  Buildings 403 

XXIII.  Trees,  Shrubs  and  Plants  for  Farm  and  Home  Plantinc; 409 

XXIV.  Concrete 424 

XXV.  Running  Water  for  House  and  Outbuildings 430 

XXVI.  LTsE  of  Explosives  on  the  Farji 444 

XXVII.  Kerosene  and  Gasoline  Engines  on  the  Farm 452 

XXVIII.  The  Care  of  Tools  on  the  Farm 457 

XXIX.  The  Care  of  the  Harness 461 

XXX.  A  Practical  ^arm  Repair  Shop 465 

XXXI.  How  to  Prolong  the  Lira  of  Fence  Posts 470 

XXXIL  Roads 474 

XXXIII.  Benefits  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan  System 480 

XXXIV.  The  Farm  Record 484 

XXXV.  Pests  on  the  Farm  and  Their  Control 490 

XXXVL  Weeds  and  Their  Control 500 

XXXVII.  Standard  Weights  and  ^Measures  and  Other  Valuable  Infor- 
mation    ^^'^ 

Index 553 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FlQUltB  PAGE 

1.  Diagram,  proportion  of  space  occupied  by  soil  material,  water  and  air.  .  5 

2.  Diagram,  texture,  composition  of  soil g 

3.  Baked  and  cracked  soil g 

4.  Cutting,  pulverizing  and  compacting  the  seed  bed 10 

5.  Pans  of  clay  soil H 

6.  Diagrams,  effect  of  deep  plowing 13 

7.  Plank  drag 15 

8.  Corrugated  roller   16 

9.  Plowing  under  green  manure 21 

10.  Nodules  on  roots  of  alfalfa 22 

11.  Value  of   fertilizers 27 

12.  Lime  and  fertilizer,  comparative  study 30 

13.  Undei'drains   placed    36 

14.  Types  of  drainage  tile _ 37 

15.  "Random"  drainage   38 

16.  System  of  drainage 39 

17.  System  of  drainage,  double  drained  land 40 

18.  Ditching  plow    43 

19.  Tools  for  ditching 44 

20.  Regions  of  corn 49 

21.  Wheat  regions   66 

22.  Leading  varieties  of  hay 85 

23.  Geography  of  the  world's  agriculture 85 

24.  Soil  in  good  tilth 88 

25.  Kentucky  blue  grass 94 

26.  Canada  blue  grass 96 

27.  Two-year  old  alfalfa  plants 104 

28.  Where  alfalfa  is  grown 105 

29.  Soy  bean  106 

30.  Cutting  the  potato 110 

31.  Production   from   seed Ill 

32.  Potato  producing  areas  in  U.  S 112 

33.  Notched-platform  potato  planter 115 

34.  Elevator  potato  digger 115 

35.  Colorado  beetle   '. 116 

36.  Potato  disease  117 

37.  Traction  spraying  of  the  potato 118 

38.  Area  adapted  to  growing  sweet  potatoes 120 

39.  Sweet  potato  slips  ready  to  be  drawn 123 

40.  Sweet  potato  tuber  and  sprouts ' 125 

41.  Black-rot  of  sweet  potato ■ 126 

42.  Soft-rot  of  sweet  potato 127 

43.  Black-rot  on  plant 128 

44.  Cigar  tobacco  131 


xii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

45.  Selecting  seed  of  tobacco 132 

46.  Tobacco  curing  barn 133 

47.  Cotton  plant    135 

48.  Plowing  under  cotton 136 

49.  Preparing  soil  for  cotton 137 

50.  Diversified  farming    138 

51.  Putting  lime  on  young  orchard.  .    140 

52.  Graded  cherry  trees 141 

53.  Results  of  jamming  the  root  into  small  hole 141 

54.  Fine  root  system 142 

55.  Bad  crotch   142 

56.  Plan  of  tree  at  planting  time 143 

57.  Plan  of  tree  after  one  year's  growth 143 

58.  Five  branched  tree 144 

59.  Method  of  cutting  large  limb 145 

60.  Eemoving  large  branches 145 

61.  Proper  method  of  cutting  large  limbs 146 

02.  Correct  and  incorrect  priming 146 

63.  San  Jose  scale 146 

64.  Oyster  shell  scale 147 

65.  Tent  caterpillar 148 

G6.  Spot  disease  of  apple 148 

67.  Codling  moth 149 

68.  Bitter  rot  of  apple 149 

69.  Apple  spray  schedule 150 

70.  One-year  old  pear  tree 151 

71.  Two-year  old  pear  tree 151 

72.  Eight  and  wrong  way  of  cutting  off  shoots .  152 

73.  Plum  curculio    153 

74.  Black  knot   154 

75.  Wounds  made  in  pruning 156 

76.  Flat  headed  borer 157 

77.  Districts  of  fruit  varieties  in  U.  S 159 

78.  Blackberry  canes  of  the  upright  type 168 

79.  Blackberry  canes  held  by  two  wires 168 

SO.  Blackberry  canes,  trailing  type,  held  by  four  wires 168 

81.  Blackberry  canes  of  trailing  type  held  by  two  wires 168 

82.  Blackberry  canes,  upright  type,  tied  to  posts 168 

S3.  Black  raspberry  plant 170 

84.  Black  raspberry  plant  after  pruning 170 

85.  Regions  for  currants  and  gooseberries  in  U.  S 172 

86.  Black  currant  before  pruning 172 

87.  Black  currant  after  pruning 172 

88.  Larvae  of  currant  worm 173 

89.  Spot  disease  of  currant 174 

90.  Strawberry  plant,   showing  runner 177 

91.  Strawberry  plants  set  at  different  depths 177 

02.  Method  of  prvming  grapevine  before  planting 181 

93.  Pruning  vines  of  different  ages 182 


I 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

FIGUKE  PAGE 

94.  Grapevine,  six-arm  renewal  system,  impruned 183 

95.  Grapevine;  six-arm  renewal  system,  pruned 183 

96.  Different  systems  of  training 184 

97.  Vine  pruned,  high  renewal   system 184 

98.  Vine  unpruned,  high  renewal  system 185 

99.  Downy  mildew  on  grape  leaf 186 

100.  Making  Bordeaux  mixture 188 

101.  Diagram  of  a  hot  bed 199 

102.  Drag  marker   201 

103.  Preparation  of  fiat  for  seedage 202 

104.  Sowing  seed  in  flat 202 

105.  Covering  seed  in  flat 202 

106.  Pressing  soil  over  seed 202 

107.  Transplanting  lettuce 203 

108.  Position  of  fingers  in  transplanting 203 

109.  Flat  of  Jersey  Wakefield  cabbage 203 

110.  Flat  full  of  thrifty  lettuce 203 

111.  Thrifty  lettuce  plants 203 

112.  Varieties  of  lettuce  for  warm  and  cool  weather 204 

113.  Cucumbers  started  in  strawberry  baskets 204 

114.  Wrong  way  to  push  a  seeder  or  hand  cultivator 208 

115.  Right  way  to  push  a  seeder  or  hand  cultivator 209 

116.  Preparing  beets   for   storage 211 

117.  Celery  plants  for  storage 211 

118.  Diagram  of  a  vegetable  pit 212 

119.  Cross  section  of  a  concrete  storage  cellar 213 

120.  Floor  plan  of  a  storage  room 213 

121.  Ventilation  of  a  storage  room 214 

122.  Squash  borer  at  work 214 

123.  Army  worm   215 

124.  Plant  lice   216 

125.  Cabbage  butterfly  and  worm 216 

126.  Natural  enemy  of  the  tomato  worm 216 

127.  Corn  worm   219 

128.  Corn  smut 219 

129.  Rectangular  body  deep  in  the  rear  (chicken) 225 

130.  A  vigorous,  active  hen 225 

131.  A  poor  capacity  bird  and  early  moulter 226 

132.  A  good  capacity  cockerel 227 

133.  A  good  capacity  bird 228 

134.  Laying  house   235 

135.  Colony  house   236 

136.  Automatic  lighting  switch 237 

137.  Louse,  red  mite 240 

138.  Position  of  knife  to  cut  veins 242 

139.  Knife  piercing  brain  in  stunning 243 

140.  Thoroughbred  horse   248 

141.  Standard  breed  of  driving  horse 250 

142.  Hackney 251 


xiv  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGCTRE  W.GE 

143.  Percheron  stallion 252 

144.  Belgian 254 

145.  Shire  .  . 255 

146.  Mule 257 

147.  Method  of  catching  young  foal 278 

148.  Bitting  harness  for  teaching  uses  of  the  bit 280 

149.  Hitched  for  the  first  time 282 

150.  Jersey  bull 289 

151.  -Jersey  cow   290 

152.  Guernsey  bull 291 

153.  Guernsey  cow 292 

154.  Ayrshire  bull  293 

1 55.  Ayrshire  cow   294 

156.  Holstein  bull   295 

157.  Holstein  cow 296 

158.  Milking  Shorthorn  bull 298 

159.  Milking  Shorthorn  cow 299 

160.  Brown  Swiss  bull 300 

161.  Brown  Swiss  cow 301 

162.  Bed  Polled  bull 302 

163.  Eed  Polled  cow 303 

164.  Clean  cows  give  clean  milk 313 

165.  A  clean  herd  means  cleaner  milk 314 

166.  Plan  of  a  milk  house 316 

167.  Outside  view  of  a  good  type  of  milk  house 317 

168.  Milk  cooler  and  aerator 318 

169.  Insulated  concrete  cooling  tank 319 

170.  Quick  hauling  of  milk  by  motor  truck 321 

171.  Simple  and  inexpensive  steam  sterilizer 323 

172.  A  milking  machine  ready  for  business 325 

173.  Working  butter 334 

174.  Method  of  reading  Babcook  test  bottles   (fat  column  in  milk  testing)  .  . .  343 

175.  Method  of  reading  fat  column  in  cream  test  bottle 345 

176.  Modern  barns  and  buildings 347 

177.  Rambouillet  ram 350 

]  78.     Shropshire  ram 351 

179.  Pure  bred  yearling  Tunis  ewe 352 

180.  Pure  bred  Karakul  ram 353 

181.  Noting  width  of  chest 355 

182.  Taking  depth  of  chest 356 

183.  Beginning  at  top  of  shoulder 357 

184.  Taking  width  and  length  of  loin 358 

185.  Noting  the  degree  to  which  the  width  of  body  is  carried  to  the  end.  .  .  .  359 

186.  Observing  length  of  the  rump 360 

1 87.  Grasping  the  leg  of  mutton 361 

188.  ]\Ianner  and  place  of  opening  fleece 362 

189.  A  fat  barrow 365 

190.  A  typical  bacon  hog 366 

191-192.     A  two-wav  feeder 372 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xv 


FIOrEE 


PAGE 


193.  Movable  hduses  3^3 

194.  Lovejoy  house   374 

195.  The  Iowa  sunlit  house 375 

196.  Beekeeping  in  Southern  California 337 

197.  A  commercial  apiary  in  Florida 388 

198.  Bee  veil  with  silk  tulle  front 389 

199.  Knives  for  uncapping  honey 389 

200.  Pan  in  super  arranged  for  feeding 399 

201.  Feeder  set  in  collar  under  hiVe  body 39O 

202.  "Pepper   box"   feeder 39I 

203.  A  ten-frame  hive 392 

204.  Worker,  queen   and  drone 393 

205.  Typical  woodlot  conditions 396 

206.  Young  white  pine  plantation 398 

207.  A  forest  properly  logged 401 

208.  A  farmstead  with  outlook  good 409 

209.  Diagram  of  planting  plans 410 

210.  Diagram   of   farmstead   orchaxd 410 

211.  Development  of  landscape  plan 411 

212.  How  to  plant  a  tree 413 

213.  Tools  used  in  making  concrete  on  the  farm 425 

214.  Typical  layout  of  running  water  system 432 

215.  Types  of  wells 433 

216.  Gravity  system  with  ram 434 

217.  Typical  pneumatic  pressure  system 435 

218.  Electric  motor  drive  complete  water  system 436 

219.  Installing  ram  and  pipe 437 

220.  Hydraulic  ram  for  filling  tanks 438 

221.  Attaching  a  blasting  cap  to  safety  fuse 447 

222.  Priming  a  cartridge  in  the  side 448 

223.  Corn  harvester  left  out  in  the  snow 459 

224.  A  poorly  kept  farm 460 

225.  Floor  plan  of  the  repair  shop 466 

226.  Perspective  drawing  showing  the  equipment 467 

227.  Method   of   fastening 468 

228.  Field  mouse  caught  in  baited  guillotine  trap 490 

229.  Field  mouse  caught  in  unbaited  guillotine  trap 491 

230.  Types  of  special  pocket-gopher  traps 493 

231.  The  little  black  ant 497 

232.  The  "little  house  fly" 498 

233.  The  true  house  fly 498 

234.  Canada  thistle 500 

235.  Wild  buckwheat   501 

236.  Bull  thistle 502 

237.  Wild  oats  seedling 503 

238.  Wild  oats   504 

239.  Slender  wheat  grass 505 

240.  Yellow  foxtail    506 

241.  Quack  grass  seedling 507 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

242.  Quack  grass   508 

243.  Witch  grass   509 

244.  Crab  grass   510 

245.  Wild  mustard 512 

246.  Kagweed 513 

247.  Buckhorn  plantain   514 

248.  Sheep  sorrel   515 

249.  Burdock 519 

250.  Blue  vervain 520 

251.  Curled  dock 521 

252.  Shepherd's  purse   522 

253.  Lambs'  quarters 524 

254.  Russian  thistle 526 

255.  Mallow 528 

256.  Prickly  lettuce 529 

257.  White  cockle 530 

258.  Purslane 531 


THE    HANDBOOK    FOR 
PRACTICAL    FARMERS 


CHAPTER  I 

SOIL  MANAGEMENT 
P.T  A.  G.  JMCCALL,  Ph.D.^ 

Good  and  poor  soils. —  A  good  soil  is  one  tliat  is  capable  of 
producing  a  satisfactory  crop  under  favorable  climatic  condi- 
tions. Most  of  our  soils  are  quite  fertile  and  produce  profitable 
crops  when  tliey  are  first  brought  under  cultivation,  but  it  is  a 
matter  of  common  experience  that  continued  cropping  results  in 
a  loss  of  fertility  as  indicated  by  a  steady  decline  in  yields.  This 
decline  in  yield  continues  very  slowly  and  gradually  until  the 
crop  finally  becomes  so  small  that  it  no  longer  pays  for  the  labor 
and  cost  of  production  and  at  this  point  the  soil  has  become 
exhausted  for  all  practical  purposes.  Under  proper  systems 
of  management,  however,  virgin  soils  may  be  made  to  retain 
their  productive  capacity  indefinitely  and  old  worn  lands  may 
be  restored  to  permanent  fertility. 

The  intelligent  use  and  the  proper  management  of  the  soil  is 
based  on  an  understanding  of  its  composition  and  its  structure. 
A  good  soil  is  composed  largely  of  two  parts:  (1)  The  organic 
matter  derived  mainly  from  the  plants  that  have  previously 
grown  upon  the  land  and  that  have  become  more  or  less  decom- 
posed; (2)  inorganic  matter  derived  originally  from  the  rocks 
that  have  broken  down  to  form  the  soil.  Both  the  organic  matter 
and  the  inorganic  material  play  an  important  part  in  determin- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Dark-colored  rich  loam  soils  are 
usually  well  supplied  with  organic  matter  while  the  poor  light 
colored  soils  are  deficient  in  organic  material,  and  the  restora- 
tion of  organic  content  constitutes  one  of  the  first  steps  in  the 
restoration  of  fertility.  The  inorganic  part  is  made  up  of  fme 
rock  particles  of  all  sizes  from  coarse  sand  or  gravel  to  those 
so  fine  that  they  can  not  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye. 

A  good  soil  may  be  distinguished  from  a  poor  soil  by  the 
general  appearance  and  by  the  character  of  the  plant  growth 
which  it  supports.  From  the  oldest  time  down  to  the  present, 
black  soil  has  commanded  the  attention  and  the  approval  of 
practical  farmers  for  the  reason  that  the  black  color  is  usually 
the  result  of  the  presence  of  an  abundant  supply  of  organic 

*  Maryland  Experiment  Station. 


.2..     THE  ;I;IANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

•matter^' ;;Tn  gome  sections  the  black  color  also  indicates  the  pres- 
'  '-en^e  Of  ah' abundant  supply  of  lime  which  is  also  essential.  Next 
to  the  black  soils  the  reddish  brown  lands  will  usually  prove  to 
be  highly  productive  and  will  command  the  respect  and  approval 
of  practical  farmers.  Yellow  lands  are  usually  next  in  value, 
while  the  white  and  the  gray  colors  are  not  regarded  as  indica- 
tive of  naturally  fertile  soil.  In  dry  arid  regions,  very  white 
spots  usually  indicate  the  presence  of  harmful  amounts  of  alkali 
salts. 

The  presence  of  well  developed  oaks  or  of  hickory  and  walnut 
trees  are  evidence  of  a  naturally  fertile  soil,  while"^  a  growth  of 
soft  woods  such  as  gum  and  short-leaved  pine  indicates  a  poor 
soil.  On  cultivated  fields  the  thrifty  appearance  of  the  crop 
plants  or  a  rank  growth  of  weeds  may  be  taken  as  a  reliable 
guide  as  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Soils  that  are  practically 
useless  for  general  farm  crops,  however,  may  be  well  adapted  to 
the  growing  of  special  truck  crops  for  the  early  market.  Light 
sandy  soil  is  best  adapted  to  the  growing  of  early  vegetables, 
small  fruits,  potatoes  and  other  similar  crops,  while  the  heavier 
loams  are  best  suited  to  the  growing  of  corn  and  other  grains. 
Clay  soils  are  best  adapted  to  the  growing  of  wheat  and  grass, 
because  of  their  greater  moisture  holding  capacity.  The  classi- 
fication of  soils  with  respect  to  their  adaptability  to  different 
crops  is  based  largely  upon  the  size  of  the  rock  particles  of 
which  the  soil  is  composed  and  to  a  lesser  degree  upon  the 
amount  of  organic  matter  present. 

In  farm  practice  soils  are  spoken  of  as  being  heavy  or  light 
depending  upon  whether  they  are  hard  or  easy  to  work.  Clay 
soils  are  difficult  to  till  because  of  the  fineness  of  the  particles 
and  their  tendency  to  stickiness,  while  coarse  grained  sandy  soils 
are  easily  cultivated  because  of  the  absence  of  any  large  quan- 
tity of  material  that  is  finely  divided.  All  soils,  however,  are 
mixtures  of  different  sized  particles,  the  size  of  the  individual 
particles  determining  the  texture  and  their  arrangement  the 
structure  of  the  soil.  Wlien  the  arrangement  of  the  soil  par- 
ticles, or  the  structure  is  such  as  to  be  highly  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  crops  the  soil  is  said  to  be  in  good  tilth. 

Relation  of  texture  and  structure  to  soil  management.— A 
great  majority  of  soils  consist  of  particles  varjdng  in  size  from 
very  fine  to  coarse,  although  some  have  only  fine  and  others 
only  coarse  particles.  The  coarse  particles  are  classed  as  fine 
gravel  or  coarse  sand;  the  next  finer  groups  as  medium  sand, 
fine  sand,  very  fine  sand;  the  finest  as  silt  and  cla}^    The  rela- 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  3 

tive  amounts  of  these  different  groups  vary  widely  in  different 
soils,  the  relative  predominance  of  the  fine  and  the  coarse  par- 
ticles determining  whether  a  soil  shall  be  classed  as  fine  tex- 
tured or  as  coarse  textured.  Soils  that  contain  a  large  propor- 
tion of  clay  are  called  clay  soils ;  those  containing  a  large  pro- 
portion of  sand  are  classed  as  sandy  soils ;  those  that  are  inter- 
mediate are  called  loam  soils.  A  loam  with  a  slight  excess  of 
clay  is  known  as  a  clay  loam;  one  with  an  excess  of  silt  a  silt 
loam. 

Various  other  names,  such  as  sandy  loam,  fine  sandy  loam,  or 
gravelly  loam,  are  applied  to  soils  of  different  texture.  In  the 
soil  survey  reports  certain  proj^er  names  are  prefixed  to  further 
describe  certain  soil  types,  as  Leonardtown  Loam,  Miami  Clay 
Loam,  Cecil  Clay,  and  Penn  Shale  Loam.  The  coarser  soil  has 
less  pore  space  than  the  fine  textured  soil,  hence  it  has  a  greater 
weight  per  cubic  foot.  A  cubic  foot  of  dry  sandy  material  weighs 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds ;  of  loam  from 
seventy-five  to  ninety  pounds ;  and  of  clay  soil  sixty  to  seventy 
pounds.  The  average  soil  is  usually  estimated  as  weighing  two 
million  pounds  per  acre  of  soil  taken  to  the  bottom  of  the  plow 
line,  or  about  six  and  two-thirds  inches.  The  term  "heavy 
soil",  however,  is  frequently  used  when  referring  to  a  soil  that 
is  difficult  to  work,  such  as  a  clay  or  a  clay  loam.  Such  soils  are 
difficult  to  work  because  they  are  sticky  and  plastic  Avhen  wet 
and  become  very  hard  when  dry.  On  the  other  hand,  sandy  soils 
are  called  ''light"  by  the  farmer  because  they  are  easily  worked. 

The  fact  that  certain  classes  of  crop  plants  are  better  adapted 
to  certain  kinds  of  soils  does  not  mean  that  these  crops  cannot 
be  grown  on  other  soils,  but  the  successful  farmer  should  select 
the  crops  that  can  be  produced  most  profitably  on  his  particular 
land.  However,  by  the  intelligent  use  of  lime,  manure  and  good 
cultural  methods  he  may  fit  his  land  for  crops  to  which  it  is  not 
naturally  well  adapted.  For  instance,  by  the  application  of  lime 
and  the  plowing  down  of  green  manuring  crops  or  heavy  appli- 
cations of  stable  manure  a  heavy  clay  soil  may  be  changed  to  a 
friable  loam.  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  large  amounts  of 
organic  matter  on  a  sandy  field  will  increase  its  xuoisture  hold- 
ing capacity  and  make  possible  the  gro\\nng  of  crops  that  are 
not  naturally  well  suited  to  sandy  land. 

AYlien  the  fine  particles  of  the  soil  are  grouped  together  in 
granules  they  form  a  crumb  structure  that  makes  the  soil  loose 
and  friable.  It  is  then  said  to  have  good  tilth  or  to  be  in  a  good 
physical  condition.    If  these  granules  or  crumbs  become  ]-)roken 


4       THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

down  the  soil  may  lose  its  loose  friable  structure  and  take  on 
a  poor  physical  condition.  Plowing  a  field  when  it  is  too  wet 
breaks  down  the  crumb  structure  and  puddles  the  soil,  causing 
it  to  form  hard  clods  and  making  it  difficult  if  not  impossible  to 
prepare  a  good  seed-bed.  Old  poorly  farmed  land  that  has  been 
depleted  of  its  organic  matter  is  very  difficult  to  keep  in  good 
tilth  and  may  become  very  compact  at  the  surface  as  the  result 
of  heavy  beating  rains. 

The  following  treatments  are  most  effective  in  bringing  old 
worn  lands  back  into  good  condition  and  keeping  them  in  good 
tilth  after  they  have  been  restored :  (1)  Plowing  in  the  fall  and 
winter  and  thus  exposing  the  soil  to  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing in  the  northern  states;  (2)  working  organic  matter  such  as 
stable  or  green  manures  into  the  soil;  (3)  providing  good  drain- 
age; (4)  applying  liberal  amounts  of  lime;  (5)  plowing  down 
clover  or  grass  sod  frequently;  and  (6)  working  the  soil  only 
under  proper  moisture  conditions. 

The  ease  with  which  a  soil  can  be  tilled  is  very  frequently  a 
matter  of  as  much  imjDortance  as  the  question  of  fertility  and 
is  dependent  on  the  texture  and  condition.  Soils  of  fine  texture 
are  much  more  difficult  to  keep  in  condition  than  sands  and 
sandy  loams.  The  latter  can  be  plowed  earlier  in  the  spring  and 
w^orked  with  much  more  water  in  them  than  can  the  clays  and 
clay  loams.  Similarly,  soils  that  are  rich  in  organic  matter, 
such  as  sod  land,  can  be  plowed  earlier  and  worked  under  a 
wider  range  of  conditions  than  soils  that  are  deficient  in  organic 
matter. 

Pore  space  and  soil  moisture. —  The  space  occupied  by  the 
soil  is  taken  up,  partly  by  the  soil  particles  themselves,  partly 
by  air,  and  partly  by  water.  About  one-third  of  the  total  space 
occupied  by  sand  and  about  one-half  of  that  occupied  by  clay  is 
taken  up  by  the  soil  particles  themselves,  the  remainder  being 
occupied  by  air  if  the  soil  be  dry.  For  the  best  growth  of  crops 
about  half  of  the  space  not  occupied  by  the  soil  particles  should 
be  taken  up  by  water.  For  the  proper  growth  of  staple  farm 
crops,  a  fertile  soil  must  have  a  certain  proportion  of  these  con- 
stituents at  all  times.  If  there  is  too  much  soil  there  may  be  a 
deficiency  of  water  or  air  or  both,  while  if  there  is  not  sufficient 
soil  the  pore  space  may  be  so  great  as  to  permit  the  leaching 
out  of  plant  food  materials  and  the  soil  will  be  unable  to  retain 
sufficient  moisture  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  growing  crop. 
B-eavy  clay  soils  have  a  larger  total  volume  of  pore  space  than 
sands,  but  the  individual  spaces  are  so  small  that  they  are  more 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


effective  in  absorbing  and  holding  the  moisture  than  are  coarser 
grained  materials.  When  puddled  by  wet  plowing  or  poor  man- 
agement the  pores  may  become  so  small  that  water  is  held  so 
tenaciously  that  it  is  of  little  use  to  the  crop.  The  following 
table  gives  the  proportion  of  pore  space  in  some  conmion  classes 
of  soils : 


I 

I 


22X 


CBX 


LOAfii 


^OZ 


30X 


60X 


■A/S'y 


}.7^Ar£-f!i 


(//yA\^AJL^Bl  € : 


■:/SO/L: 


f CLy^y ^ 

CRANULATEP  PUDDLED 

2X 


.tox 

::-j:'^P:  ■ 

^oz 

^=e^Ar£RU 

SMI 

=M/VAI/'A'/L  A8L  £- 

<oz 

v'.'-.'/-,''.V'^-;-i--.-r7 

esz\, 


70Z 


■\^i^Afef7--y 


■yt^Ai^A'LAau 


-SO/L'^r-- 


mm 


Fig.  1. — -Diagram  representing  the  proportion  of  space  occupied  by  soil  material, 
water,  and  air  in  a  section  of  different  soils.  The  availability  of  the  soil  water 
and  presence  of  sufficient  air  are  dependent  on  the  right  physical  conditions  of 
the  soil. 

Pore  Space  in  Soil 


rROrORTION  OF  TORE  SPACE 

laND  OF  SOIL 

.  Percentage 

Parts  by  volume 

35  to  40 
40  to  50 
20  to  40 
45  to  55 

1/3  to  2/5 
2/5  to  1/2 

Sandy  loam.     Good  tilth. '. 

Sandy  loam.     Puddled 

1/5  to  2/5 

Silt.     Good  tilth 

3/7  to  5/9 
1/2  to  2/3 
1/4  to  2/5 

Clav.     Good  granular  tilth 

50  to  65 
25  to  45 

Clav.     Puddled 

" 

.  The  importance  of  the  right  proportions  of  the  soil  constitu- 
ents and  their  relation  to  texture  and  structure  is  shown  in  the 
diagrams  of  Figure  2,  which  is  taken  from  a  Cornell  reading 
course  bulletin. 

Soil  moisture  and  crop  production. — It  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  crops  make  a  much  better  growth  in  a  moist 
soil  than  in  a  soil  that  is  too  dry.  The  quantity  of  water  used  by 
a  growing  crop  is  very  large  and  varies  considerably  with  dif- 


6       THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


S/LT  LOAM 


CI Ar  LOAM 


r/A/E  GRAl/'EL  ANP  COARSE  SANP    j-^^^^a'ggl 
MEPIUM  AND  rWE  SAND  Iffff^JriVj 

\/ERr  /7/V£-  SAND  \/M}^i^^\ 

S/LT  v'^'.m-\ 

Fig.  2. — Diagrams  representing  the  textural  composition  of  the  more  important 
classes  of  soil,  and  the  proportion  of  particles  of  different  sizes  that  make  up 
each  kind. —  Cornell  Reading  Course. 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


ferent  plants.  By  comparing  the  amount  required  to  produce 
a  crop  with  the  total  annual  water  supx)ly  and  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  capacity  of  the  soil  to  retain  Avater  for  the  use 
of  the  plant,  approjDriate  stejis  may  he  taken  to  conserve  the 
supply  by  proper  methods  of  management  and  thus  secure 
larger  crop  yields.  AVliile  the  quantity  of  water  varies  not  only 
with  the  kind  of  plants  but  also  with  the  climate  and  season,  the 
following  table  gives  the  approximate  amount  of  water  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  joound  of  dry  matter  and  the  number  of  inches 
of  rainfall  necessary  to  supply  the  needs  for  the  yields  indicated. 

Amount  of  Water  Required  to  Produce  Crops 


water  require- 
ments PER  pound 
OF  DRY  TOPS 

( pounds ) 

YIELDS  PER  ACRE 

INCHES  OF 

CROP 

Bushels   or 

tons 

Total   lbs. 
dry  matter 

RAINFALL 

USED 

Corn         

250-  375 
250-  500 
400-  600 
300-  450 

600-1000 
300-  500 

100 
40 
70 

300 

6 

4 

10,000 
6,500 
7,000 
6,000 

10,000 

7,000 

11-16 

Wheat 

7-14 

19    18 

Oats 

Potatoes    

8-12 

Alfalfa  . 

26  45 

Red  clover 

9-15 

Not  only  the  total  amount  of  rainfall,  but  its  distribution 
throughout  the  growing  season  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion. Throughout  a  greater  part  of  eastern  United  States  the 
rainfall  is  sufficient  for  profitable  crop  yields  if  proper  steps 
are  taken  to  conserve  the  moisture.  In  the  dry  regions  of  tlie 
west  special  dry-farming  methods  must  be  followed  to  conserve 
the  scant  rainfall  and  insure  its  storage  in  the  soil  until  it  is 
used  by  the  crop.  In  other  sections  of  the  west  irrigation  is 
practiced  to  supplement  the  rainfall.  In  the  east  the  limiting 
factor,  so  far  as  water  supi)ly  is  concerned,  is  the  capacity  of 
the  soil,  either  naturally  or  under  the  good  management  of  the 
farmer,  to  retain  sufficient  moisture  within  reach  of  the  plant 
roots  to  carry  them  over  periods  between  rains. 

When  rain  falls  upon  the  surface  of  a  field  a  part  of  the  water 
soaks  into  the  soil  and  another  part  runs  off  the  surface.  If 
the  surface  is  dry  and  hard  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  water 
runs  off  and  only  a  small  quantity  enters  the  soil.  The  part 
that  runs  off  the  surface  is  not  only  lost  to  the  plants,  but  it  also 
carries  away  with  it  a  large  amount  of  plant  food  material  and 
may  even  produce  serious  erosion  of  the  surface  soil.    Observe 


8   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


what  happens  when  a  hard  rain  falls  on  a  loose  mellow  garden 
soil  and  compare  this  with  what  happens  when  the  same  rain 
falls  on  a  hard  path  or  other  compacted  soil.  Thrifty  farmers 
try  to  keep  their  fields  loose  and  mellow  on  the  surface  during 
the  growing  season  so  that  the  soil  will  absorb  and  hold  the 
rainfall. 

The  water  that  passes  into  the  soil  spreads  out  into  a  thin 
film  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  particles,  the  amount  of  moisture 
retained  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  individual  grains  and 

the  surface  which  they 
present.  A  light  sandy 
loam  in  good  tilth  will  re- 
tain in  the  surface  three 
feet  about  six  inches  of 
rainfall;  silt  and  clay 
loams  from  eleven  to  fif- 
teen inches,  and  a  black 
muck  soil  as  much  as  sev- 
enteen inches.  Not  all  of 
this  moisture  that  is  re- 
tained is  available  to 
plants  because  of  the  ten- 
acity with  which  it  is  held 
by  the  soil  grains.  In 
hea^^"  clays  and  clay 
loams  not  more  than  half 
of  the  moisture  retained 
is  available,  while  in  the 
sandy  loam  a  much  larger 
percentage  can  be  util- 
ized. 

The  first  duty  of  the 
farmer  is  to  keep  his  soil 
in  condition  to  absorb  the 
rainfall  and  then  to  prac- 
tice a  system  of  manage- 
ment best  calculated  to 
retain  the  moisture  and 
make  it  available  to  his 
crops.  Since  coarse  sandy  soils  are  inclined  to  be  lacking 
in  retentiveness,  they  should  be  kept  as  compact  as  possible. 
Such  soils  are  better  plowed  in  the  fall  than  in  the  spring,  and 
if  humus  is  not  being  applied,  shallow  plowing  is  better  than 


xml^^^I^Js^A^^ti^Bm 

^^M^i^^H 

wS^^^^S 

m]m| 

H 

l§™SfeKJ' 

"S 

wG^^^m^^^' 

Fig.  3. —  Soils  that  have  a  tendency  to  baku  and 
crack  should  have  frequent  shallow  cultiva- 
tion to  conserve  the  moisture. 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  9 

deep,  since  the  operation  of  plowing  tends  to  loosen  the  soil. 
Plowing  sandy  soils  when  they  are  a  little  wet  forces  the  smaller 
particles  into  the  larger  spaces  and  thus  increases  the  quantity 
of  water  retained.  The  most  effective  means  of  increasing  the 
moisture  capacity  of  sandy  land,  however,  is  by  the  application 
of  humus  or  well  rotted  organic  matter  and  its  thorough  incor- 
poration into  the  deeper  layers  of  the  surface  soil. 

The  addition  of  humus  is  most  effective  w^hen  used  in  connec- 
tion with  deep  plowing  f  ollow^ed  by  compacting  implements  such 
as  the  roller,  the  effect  of  the  humus  more  than  compensating  for 
any  disadvantages  from  deep  plowing. 

In  very  fine  textured  soils,  such  as  clay  and  in  loams  that  are 
puddled,  the  pores  are  so  small  in  size,  and  sometimes  also  in 
total  volume,  that  the  soil  has  a  very  low  moisture  holding 
capacity.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  management  of 
such  soils,  since  it  is  important  that  they  should  be  kept  in  a 
loose  granular  condition.  The  finer  the  soil  the  greater  the 
importance  of  putting  it  in  a  granular  condition.  In  coarse 
sandy  soils  the  individual  particles  may  rest  close  together  and 
yet  the  pore  spaces  be  too  large  to  be  most  effective.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  a  clay  soil  is  pulverized  so  that  the  individual 
particles  rest  close  together,  the  spaces  are  so  small  that  they 
retain  too  much  moisture  and  thus  cut  off  ventilation  and  lessen 
the  rate  of  formation  of  available  plant  food  material. 

Practical  hints  on  tilth  and  tillage. —  Since  good  tilth  is 
dependent  upon  a  proper  degree  of  granulation  it  is  desirable 
to  study  some  of  the  factors  affecting  granulation. 

1.  Adequate  drainage  is  the  most  fundamental  of  these.  It 
is  impossible  to  keep  a  poorly  drained  soil  in  good  tilth.  Such 
a  soil  is  naturally  inclined  to  puddle  and  compact,  and  Avhen  dry 
works  up  into  a  rough,  lumpy  condition.  Continual  wetness 
breaks  down  the  granular  aggregates  by  dissolving  the  cement- 
ing material,  and  permits  the  particles  to  settle  together.  The 
first  step  toward  improvement  of  soil  that  is  too  compact  is 
provision  for  good  drainage  by  some  means,  preferably  by  tile 
underdrains. 

Drainage  quickl^^  removes  excess  water  and  permits  a  reason- 
able amount  of  drying,  which  results  in  cutting  and  granulating 
the  soil  by  means  of  checks  and  cracks.  Without  any  other  treat- 
ment, drainage  wall  loosen  the  soil  and  provide  an  improved  cir- 
culation of  water  and  gases  throughout  the  earth  mass.  In 
proof  of  this  is  the  observation  of  farmers  that  underdrains  in 
heavy  soil  gradually  increase  in  efficiency  over  a  period  of  years. 


10  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


This  mode  of  action  has  been  described  as  a  ''slacking"  of  the 
soil,  althongh  technically  it  is  a  different  ]3rocess.  The  earth 
seems  to  fall  apart  and  loosen  to  such  an  extent  that  certain 
persons  have  thought  they  noticed  an  elevation  of  the  surface 
adjacent  to  the  lines  of  drain.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
placed  on  the  fundamental  value  of  drainage  in  imjiroving  the 
physical  condition  of  compact  soils. 


Fig.  4. —  Cutting,  pulverizing  and  compacting  tlic  vicdhcd  .\i   one  operation. — 
Bij  permission  of  Dunham  Co.,  Bcicn,  Ohio. 

2.  Tillage  of  soil  that  contains  only  capillary  (film)  water  is 
very  helpful.  If  the  soil  is  either  too  wet  or  too  drj^  the  best 
results  cannot  be  obtained.  That  nicely  moist  condition  in  which 
a  mass  of  moist  soil  pressed  in  the  hand  will  hold  its  form  but 
will  not  show  free  water,  is  the  right  stage  for  proper  tillage. 
■\^nien  too  dry,  a  soil  breaks  into  chunks,  or  clods,  that  must  be 
broken  down. 

3.  Plenty  of  decaying  organic  matter  in  the  form  of  humus 
is  very  helpful  in  developing  good  tilth.  Humus  is  a  dark- 
colored,  gelatinous  substance  that  in  many  ways  helps  to  pro- 
duce granular  structure.  The  tendency  of  soils  to  settle  and 
bake  after  years  of  cultivation  is  often  due  to  exhaustion  of  the 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


11 


organic  matter.  This  in  turn  reacts  on  tlie  physical  and  drain- 
age condition  of  the  soil  in  a  way  which  is  doubly  injurious. 
The  maintenance  of  humus  in  the  soil  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
means  of  improving  the  tilth.  This  applies  to  sandy  land  quite 
as  much  as  to  clay  land,  but  in  sand  the  mode  of  action  is  dif- 
ferent from  the  process  of  granulation. 

4.  Lime  has  a  peculiar  effect  on  clay  soils.  The  tine  particles 
are  thrown  together  in  groups  or  floccules  and  when  the  soil 
dries  these  become  granules.  Clay  soils  rich  in  lime  carbonate 
have  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  sandy  soils  because  of  this 
action.    Clay  soils  that  have  been  granulated  w^ork  more  easily 


Fig.  5. —  These  figures  represent  two  pans  of  clay  soil  which  had  been  puddled  and 
molded  with  a  smooth  surface.  While  still  wet,  pan  No.  2  was  permitted  to 
freeze.  Both  pans  were  permitted  to  dry  out.  The  cracks  formed  where  the 
structure  of  the  soil  was  most  open.  The  pattern  in  Xo.  2  shows  the  influence 
of  the  ice  crystals,  and  this  soil  was  much  more  friable  and  crumbly  than  the 
soil  that  was  dried  without  freezing. 

than  those  that  have  not.  An  English  farmer  is  reported  to 
have  said  that  liming  his  clay  land  enabled  him  to  plow  mth 
two  horses. 

5.  Alternate  freezing  and  thamng  breaks  up  hea\^^  soils.  As 
water  freezes  in  the  soil,  long,  needle-like  crystals  are  formed 
that  cut  through,  the  soil  in  many  directions.  So  complete  is  this 
network  of  crystals  and  so  effective  is  their  cleavage  action  that 
the  hardest  clod  rarely  fails  to  fall  to  pieces  after  two  or  three 
severe  freezes.  Nothing  is  more  effective  in  breaking  up  sub- 
soils than  deep  fall  plowing  which  leaves  them  exposed  to  the 
action  of  frost  during  the  M^nter.  To  be  most  effective,  how- 
ever, the  fall  plowing  should  be  accompanied  by  good  drainage, 


12  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

which  will  help  to  prevent  the  soil  from  running  together  during 
the  spring  thaws. 

6.  Penetration  of  roots,  and  the  burrowing  of  earthworms, 
ants  and  other  animals  are  important  agencies  in  soil  improve- 
ment. The  roots  of  plants  make  their  way  through  the  soil  in 
every  direction,  the  crops  having  fine  fibrous  roots  like  the  buck- 
wheat, being  especially  noted  for  their  beneficial  effect  on  heavy 
soil.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  best  way  to  bring  a  poor 
clay  soil  into  condition  is  to  put  it  down  to  grass  for  a  few  years, 
after  which  it  turns  up  loose  and  friable.  The  mat  of  vegetation 
formed  by  plants,  especially  grasses,  protects  the  soil  from  beat- 
ing rains,  the  puddling  action  of  melting  snow,  and  from  washing 
or  erosion.  Plants  grown  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the 
surface  of  the  soil  are  known  as  cover  crops. 

In  order  to  accomplish  good  plowing  the  furrow  slice  must 
be  turned  to  the  proper  angle  and  should  be  straight  and  uni- 
form. To  set  the  furrow  slice  at  the  proper  angle  it  is  necessary 
that  the  depth  of  the  plowing  should  be  about  one-half  the  width 
of  the  furrow.  If  the  plowing  is  too  shallow  the  furrow  slice 
is  inverted.  Wlien  the  furrow  slice  is  completely  inverted, 
stubble  and  sod  or  rubbish  are  thrown  to  the  bottom  of  the 
furrow  where  they  tend  to  prevent  the  proper  contact  of  the 
furrow  slice  with  the  subsoil.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  furrow 
slice  is  set  well  on  edge,  there  is  a  good  chance  for  the  capillary 
rise  of  moisture,  rainfall  is  more  readily  absorbed,  and  the  sod 
and  rubbish  are  more  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  depth  of 
the  f urroAV.  ^Yhen  the  soil  1)ears  a  heavy  sod  so  that  the  furrow 
holds  its  form,  packing  by  heavy  rolling  is  desirable,  so  as  to 
bring  the  sod  in  closer  contact  with  the  subsoil  and  to  eliminate 
intersoil  spaces  that  are  too  large.  The  diagrams  of  Fig.  3 
show  the  proper  position  of  the  furrow  slice  after  it  has  been 
turned  by  the  plow. 

The  average  depth  of  plowing  in  the  United  States  is  probably 
not  over  five  inches.  For  most  soils,  especially  those  having  a 
compact  subsoil,  deeper  plowing  is  highly  beneficial  since  by  this 
means  their  moisture  capacity  may  be  greatly  increased  and 
deeper  root  penetration  secured.  On  light,  sandy  soils  deep 
plomng  should  be  accompanied  by  generous  applications  of 
manure  or  other  organic  matter. 

Several  attachments  are  used  on  the  plow  for  special  condi- 
tions of  the  soil.  On  sod  land  the  jointer  much  improves  the 
result.  This  is  a  miniature  plow  which  cuts  the  surface  roots 
and  turns  under  the  edge  of  the  furrow,  giving  a  smoother 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


13 


appearance.    It  tends  also  to  prevent  grass  from  growing  along 
the  soil  line  of  each  furrow. 

Several  types  of  colter  are  used  on  sod  or  rooty  ground  for 
cutting  the  furrow  from  the  landside.   All  these  should  be  placed 


Fig.  6. — Diagrams  illustrating  the  effect  of  depth  of  plowing  relative  to  width  of 
furrow  on  the  final  position  of  the  furrow  slice.  The  second  and  third  are  the 
most  satisfactoi-y.  When  set  in  this  position  the  upper  edge  of  the  furrow  slices 
may  be  readily  worked  down  to  a  seed  bed  without  the  interference  of  sod  which 
may  have  been  turned  under.  JNIanure  and  turf  are  well  distributed,  without 
breaking  connection  with  the  subsoil.  Subsequent  packing  and  preparation 
should  break  down  the  lower  edge  of  the  furrow  slice  and  bring  the  top  soil  in 
close  contact  with  the  subsoil. — Cornell  Reading  Course. 


a  little  back  of  the  plow  point  and  slightly  outside  the  line  of  the 
landside,  so  as  to  cut  a  clear  course  at  the  moment  when  the 
roots  are  drawn  taut  over  the  point.  The  rolling  and  blade 
colters  are  attached  to  the  beam.  The  rolling  colter  adds  less  to 
the  draft,  and  is  more  satisfactory  than  the  blade  colter  where 
there  is  much  surface  rubbish.    Occasionallv  a  small  fin  colter 


14  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

is  attached  to  the  share.  When  the  shin  of  the  plow  is  sharp, 
especially  on  fallow  ground  in  good  condition,  colters  are  of  little 
service,  and  the  jointer  in  particular  is  objectionable  owing  to 
the  increase  in  draft. 

There  are  two  types  of  turning  plow,  the  moldboard  and  the 
disk.  The  former  is  in  most  general  use  and  is  adapted  to  the 
widest  range  of  soil  conditions.  The  disk  plow  is  especially 
suited  to  hard,  dry  soil  and  does  particularly  well  where  there  is 
much  rubbish  or  vegetation  to  be  turned  under.  It  is  not  adapted 
to  sod  land  or  to  soil  that  is  very  stony. 

On  hard  soil  the  disk  plow  is  more  efficient  than  the  moldboard 
plow  for  the  draft  consumed. 

Subsoiling. —  Subsoiling  is  the  operation  of  breaking  up  the 
subsoil  without  turning  it  to  the  surface.  A  special  plow  is  used 
in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  behind  the  turning  plow.  Subsoiling 
is  practiced  most  safely  in  the  fall.  Unsatisfactory  results  are 
likely  to  follow  subsoiling  in  the  spring. 

Deep-tilling  implements. — An  intermediate  implement  between 
the  turning  plow  and  the  subsoil  plow  is  the  Spalding  Deep- 
Tilling  machine.  This  is  of  the  solid  disk  type.  There  are  two 
disks,  one  behind  and  below  the  other.  They  are  carried  on  a 
sulky  frame,  and  by  proper  adjustment  the  soil  can  be  worked 
twelve  to  sixteen  inches  deep.  Its  use  appears  to  be  relatively 
more  safe  than  would  be  plomng  with  the  moldboard  plow  to  the 
same  depth,  for,  although  the  subsoil  is  stirred,  it  is  only  partly 
thrown  to  the  surface  and  mixed  with  the  topsoil.  In  order  to 
accomplish  the  mixing  of  the  right  proportions  of  subsoil  with 
the  soil,  special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  relative  amount 
of  cutting  done  by  the  two  disks. 

After  plowing,  the  soil  should  usually  be  worked  down  and 
pulverized  at  once.  At  that  time  the  lumps  are  most  easily 
pulverized,  and  by  leveling  and  fining  the  surface  moisture  is 
saved.  In  the  case  of  fall  plowing  this  practice  is  not  recom- 
mended, as  the  rough  surface  holds  the  snow  during  the  Avinter 
and  is  less  subject  to  puddling  during  the  spring  thaws. 
Cultivators  stir  the  soil.  For  rapid  Avork  some  type  of  harrow 
is  generally  used. 

The  harrow  is  a  broad,  many-toothed  implement,  generally 
without  wheels  or  guiding  handles.  There  are  three  main  tj^pes 
of  harrows :  the  spike-tooth,  the  spring-tooth,  and  the  disk.  The 
spike-tooth  harrow  is  light,  and  is  therefore  suited  to  rather 
clean  soil  in  fairly  good  condition.  The  spring-tooth  harrow 
draws  to  the  ground  better  than  does  the  spike-tooth  harrow. 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


15 


It  works  to  greater  depth  and  tends  to  bring  Imiips  and  stones 
to  the  surface  and  to  collect  roots  and  vines.  Usually  the  slant  of 
the  teeth  of  the  spike-  and  spring-tooth  implements  can  be 
readily  adjusted,  and  this  determines  the  extent  to  Avhicli  they 
stir  the  soiL 

Something  more  vigorous  than  a  harrow  is  sometimes  required 
on  lumpy  soil;  grinding  and  crushing  action  is  most  effective. 
For  pulverizing  and  leveling  the  surface,  the  plank  drag  is 
effective. 


Fig.  7. — The  plank  drag  smooths  and  levels  the  surface.    An  efficient  home-made 
implement. —  Bi/  permission  of  Dunham  Co.,  Berca,  Ohio. 


The  most  common  tool  used  to  pack  the  soil  is  the  roller,  of 
which  the  log  roller  is  the  pioneer  type.  The  value  of  the  roller 
depends  largely  on  its  weight  and  diameter.  For  the  same 
weight  the  smaller  diameter  is  more  efficient  than  the  larger 
diameter.  The  roller  is  often  used  immediately  after  plowing 
to  press  doA\Ti  the  furrow  slices  so  that  thej^  Avill  not  be  torn  up 
by  the  harrow  and  so  that  a  more  level  surface  is  provided  for 
the  team.  In  countries  where  the  winters  are  severe  and  the 
roots  of  plants  are  torn  loose  from  the  ground  by  frost,  the  roller 
is  used  in  order  to  press  roots  into  the  soil  and  to  firm  the  soil 


16     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

around  the  roots  so  that  they  may  renew  their  growth.  Rollers 
usually  are  made  in  two  or  more  sections  for  convenience  in 
turning,  and  have  a  basket  or  some  other  arrangement  for  load- 
ing in  order  to  increase  the  weight.  As  a  pulverizer  the  solid 
roller  is  inefficient.  Its  weight  is  distributed  over  too  much 
surface  and  it  is  likely  to  press  the  clods  into  the  soft  soil  rather 
than  to  crush  them. 

Another  type  of  roller  is  the  subsurface  packer,  wiiich  comes 
near  to  being  an  ordinary  clod-crusher.    Its  surface  is  broken 


f"-^*^- 


■^■^Mr' 


«s?'*' i-^-^/^^^/^^^fc^i**;^    ''-^'Mirs-^ 


Fig.  8. —  This  cormjrated  roller  is  an  effective  pulverizer  and  at  the  same 
makes  a  compact  seedbed. — Bij  permission  of  DnnJiain  Co.,  Bcrea,  Ohio. 


time 


so  that  it  cuts  into  the  soil  and  exerts  pressure  to  considerable 
depth.  It  is  especiall}^  useful  in  the  spring  of  the  year  and  in 
arid  regions,  in  pressing  the  furrow  slice  into  close  contact  with 
the  subsoil  and  at  the  same  time  leaving  a  loose  la^^er  of  soil  on 
the  surface  as  a  mulch  to  save  water.  ^ 

Farm  manures  and  commercial  fertilizers. —  To  the  practical 
farmer  there  is  no  question  of  greater  importance  than  that  of 
soil  fertility.  Good  farm  management  consists  in  producing 
profitable  crops  and  at  the  same  time  maintaining  or  even 
increasing  the  productive  capacity  of  the  soil.    Many  farmers 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  17 

are  accomplishing  this  result  by  making  use  of  the  knowledge 
which  they  have  acquired  through  years  of  experience  and  a 
study  of  the  character  of  their  land,  its  adaptability  to  crops, 
and  methods  of  management  and  manuring.  Other  farmers  have 
accomplished  the  same  results  in  a  much  shorter  period  of  time 
by  acquiring  a  definite  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles 
and  making  use  of  the  experience  of  others. 

Grain  and  livestock  farming. —  In  the  system  of  grain  farming 
that  has  been  practiced  over  large  areas  in  this  country  for  long 
periods  of  time,  and  is  still  practiced,  the  livestock  is  often  lim- 
ited to  the  number  needed  for  labor,  the  grain  is  sold  and  only 
the  straw  and  stalks  returned  to  the  land.  "Where  a  part  or  all 
of  the  grain  produced  is  sold  from  the  farm  it  becomes  a  neces- 
sity sooner  or  later  to  supply  plant  food  materials  from  outside 
sources  and  to  make  provision  for  keeping  up  the  supply  of 
organic  matter  in  the  soil  by  jDlowing  down  sod  and  by  the 
growing  of  green  manuring  crops  to  be  plowed  down. 

In  livestock  farming  the  same  results  are  accomplished  by 
feeding  the  crops  grown  on  the  farm  and  saving  the  manure  and 
returning  it  to  the  land.  If  in  addition  to  feeding  all  of  the  crops 
grown  on  the  farm,  concentrated  feeds  are  purchased  and  fed, 
the  loss  of  soil  fertility  may  be  reduced  to  a  minimmii,  or  there 
may  result  an  actual  gain  in  fertility. 

This  system  of  farming  is  even  more  effective  if  some  of  the 
produce  that  is  low  in  fertilizing  constituents  is  exchanged  for 
more  concentrated  feeding  stuffs.  For  instance,  the  exchange  of 
a  ton  of  corn  for  a  ton  of  wheat  bran  Avill  result  in  a  gain  of 
twenty-one  pounds  of  nitrogen,  forty-six  pounds  of  phosphoric 
acid,  and  twenty-four  pounds  of  potash.  AVith  an  exchange  of 
milk  or  jiotatoes  for  concentrated  feeds  the  gain  is  even  greater. 

Stable  manures. —  The  manure  produced  by  farm  animals 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  that  the  farmer  has 
at  his  conmiand  for  the  i^urpose  of  keeping  up  the  fertility  of 
his  land.  The  total  annual  production  of  manure,  both  solid  and 
liquid,  for  each  thousand  pounds  of  live  weight  is  about  nine 
tons  for  the  horse,  thirteen  tons  for  the  cow,  fifteen  tons  for 
swine,  and  about  five  tons  each  for  sheep  and  poultry.  The  wide 
variation  in  the  amount  produced  by  the  different  classes  of 
animals  is  due  largely  to  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  water, 
horse,  sheep  and  poultry  manure  being  comparatively  dry  while 
cows  and  SA\^ne  produce  a  wet  manure. 

Handling  manure. —  Under  the  conditions  that  prevail  on  most 
farms  much  of  the  value  of  the  manure  is  lost  bv  failure  to 


18     THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FARMERS- 

properly  store  and  handle  the  animal  excrements.  The  three 
principal  sources  of  loss  are :  (1)  Failure  to  preserve  the  licpiid 
manure;  (2)  leaching  by  rain;  (3)  hot  fermentation. 

The  necessity  for  preserving  the  liquid  as  well  as  the  solid 
manure  is  apparent  from  the  following  table  which  gives  the 
approximate  composition  of  the  solid  and  liquid  excrement  from 
different  classes  of  animals. 


Pla^^t  Food  JNIaterials  per  1000  Pouxds  of  ExCREiirxT 


rOUXDS   OF  ESSENTIAL  ELEMENTS 


Xitroffen 


Phosiilioric 
acid 


Potash 


Horse : 

Solid  . 

Liquid 
Cow: 

Solid  . 

Liquid 
Swine : 

Solid  . 

Liquid 
Sheep : 

Solid  . 

Liquid 


5.0.5 
12.00 


3.00 
S.OO 


6.00 
3.00 


7.50 
14.00 


3.50 
0.00 


2.50 
0.00 


4.50 
1.25 


COO 

0.50 


3.00 
15.00 


1.00 
14.00 


5.00 
2.00 


3.00 
20.00 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  for  horse,  cow,  and  sheep 
manure  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  nitrogen  is  in  the  liquid 
manure,  and  that  the  potassium  is  from  five  to  fourteen  times 
more  abundant  in  the  liquid  than  in  the  solid  manure. 
Practically  none  of  the  phosphorus,  however,  is  contained  in  the 
licpiid  excrement.    These  facts  point  to  the  necessity  of  having 


ARSORBINO   CArACITY 

AND  IMant^rial  Valine  of  P>edding  IMater 

lAL.S 

MATERIALS 

"OUNDS  of   wa- 
ter retained 

PER     100     LBS. 
AFTER  24  URS. 

POUNDS    IN 

100   BOUNDS 
MATERIAL 

OF   AIR-DRY 

Nitrogen 

Phosphorus 

Potash 

'WVipnf.  i^+rnw                             

220 

2S5 
350 
450 
200 
175 
435 
375 

0.5 
O.G 
1.0 
1.5 
1.0 
1.0 
0  2 
0.1 

0.25 
0.30 
0.30 
0.25 
0.20 
0.20 
0.10 
0.10 

O.SO 

1.20 

1.40 

"Muck  .                 

0.30 

0.35 

Pinp   Tippdlos                   

0.15 

0.40 

0.30 

SOIL  MANAGEMENT  19 

tight  stable  floors  and  to  tlie  need  for  sufficient  bedding  to  absorb 
all  of  the  liquid  manure  produced. 

Both  dry  muck  and  soil  are  effective  in  absorbing  the  liquid 
and  in  preserving  the  valuable  parts  of  the  manure,  but  since 
they  have  a  tendency  to  foul  the  stock  and  the  stable  they  should 
be  used  under  a  thin  la3'er  of  fibrous  material  like  straw  or 
shavings. 

Manure  always  suffers  appreciable  loss  if  subject  to  leaching 
by  rain  water.  For  this  reason  any  of  the  methods  of  storage 
that  permits  rain  water  to  pass  through  the  manure  or  to  dis- 
place a  corresponding  amount  of  liquid  already  absorbed,  results 
in  serious  losses.  Small,  thin  piles  are  especially  wasteful  and 
should  be  avoided  both  in  the  barn-lot  and  in  the  field.  If  manure 
cannot  be  taken  direct  to  the  field  from  the  stable  and  spread 
evenly  over  the  soil  it  should  be  stored  either  in  a  tight  pit  or  in 
large  compact  piles  so  deej)  that  the  rain  does  not  penetrate  to 
the  bottom. 

Application  of  manure  to  the  land.— For  the  general  farmer 
the  best  practice  is  to  apply  the  manure  to  the  land  as  rapidly 
as  it  is  made,  spreading  it  in  a  thin,  uniform  layer  and  depend- 
ing upon  the  absorptive  capacity  of  the  soil  to  reduce  the  losses 
to  a  minimum.  Truck  farmers  and  gardeners  store  their  manure 
in  large  compost  heaps  from  five  to  six  feet  deep  and  flat  or 
saucer-shaped  on  the  top  to  absorb  the  rain  and  thus  keep  the 
X^ile  moist.  A  pile  of  this  depth  has  sufficient  capacity  to  absorb 
any  ordinary  amount  of  rainfall. 

The  place  in  the  rotation  where  manure  can  be  applied  to  the 
best  advantage  is  a  difficult  cpiestion  to  decide  and  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  requirements  of  the 
crops.  In  general  forage  and  grass  crops  make  a  better  use  of 
manure  than  do  the  small  grains.  In  a  rotation  of  corn,  oats, 
wheat,  clover,  the  manure  can  usually  be  applied  to  best  advan- 
tage on  the  clover  sod  to  be  plowed  doAvn  for  corn.  In  mixed 
farming  where  grass  is  let  stand  for  three  or  four  years  the  use 
of  manure  as  a  top  dressing  on  the  new  seeding  greatly  increases 
not  only  the  grass  crops  but  residue  of  manure  together  with  the 
grass  sod  and  stubble  has  a  marked  effect  upon  the  grain  crops 
following  the  grass. 

At  "the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  the  application  of  ten  tons 
of  manure  per  acre  to  grass  land  for  two  years  in  three, 
increased  the  average  yield  of  hay  two  hundred  and  fifty  per  cent 
and  the  value  of  the  succeeding  crops  of  corn,  oats  and  Avheat  to 
the  amount  of  $34.61.     At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  the 


20  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

value  of  a  ton  of  manure  as  an  average  for  several  rotations  over 
a  long  period  of  time  has  been  about  three  dollars.  At  the  same 
station  eight  tons  of  manure  applied  on  the  corn  and  on  the 
wheat  in  a  five-year  rotation  has  given  a  gross  return  of  four 
dollars  and  sixtj^-nine  cents  per  ton. 

The  returns  that  may  be  expected  from  a  ton  of  manure 
depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil,  the  value  of  the  crop  and 
the  quantity  of  manure  used.  In  general  the  largest  returns  per 
ton  of  manure  will  be  secured:  (1)  from  soils  that  are  deficient 
in  organic  matter;  (2)  when  used  on  crops  of  high  value  per 
acre ;  (3)  when  used  in  moderate  quantities.  Within  reasonable 
limits  the  smaller  the  application  per  acre  the  larger  the  returns 
per  ton  of  manure  although  the  total  acre  value  of  the  crop 
increase  will  be  less.  For  example,  if  one-half  of  a  field  is 
manured  at  the  rate  of  five  tons  per  acre  and  the  other  half  at 
the  rate  of  ten  tons,  the  acre  yield  from  the  latter  will  be  much 
larger  than  from  the  former  but  the  increase  derived  from  the 
ten-ton  application  will  not  be  twice  that  received  from  the 
lighter  application.  In  general  farm  practice  the  use  of  from 
five  to  ten  tons  of  manure  per  acre  on  each  of  two  non-legumes 
in  the  rotation  is  about  as  much  as  can  be  used  with  profit. 
These  light  applications  can  be  made  most  effectively  by  the  use 
of  a  manure  spreader.  By  the  use  of  the  spreader  the  labor  cost 
is  materially  reduced  and  the  same  amount  of  manure  can  be 
made  to  go  farther  than  when  spread  by  hand  and  a  more  even 
distribution  is  secured. 

For  most  soils  the  effectiveness  of  the  manure  is  greatly 
increased  by  re-inforcement  with  acid  phosphate  or  with  raw 
ground  phosphate  rock  at  the  rate  of  fifty  to  sixty  pounds  of 
the  phosphate  for  each  ton  of  manure.  This  material  may  be 
used  in  the  stable  under  the  bedding  as  an  absorbent,  or  it  may 
be  mixed  with  the  manure  in  the  storage  shed  or  on  the  spreader 
as  it  is  being  hauled  to  the  field. 

Green  manuring  crops. —  All  of  the  methods,  such  as  tillage, 
drainage,  etc.,  employed  for  making  plant  food  materials  avail- 
able tend  to  decrease  the  amount  of  organic  matter  or  humus  in 
the  soil,  because  the  conditions  that  are  favorable  for  making 
plant  food  available,  also  favor  the  decomposition  of  the  organic 
matter.  The  plowing  under  of  green  crops  to  restore  the  organic 
matter  and  thus  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  was  advocated 
by  Roman  writers  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago  and  has 
been  practiced  by  progressive  farmers  ever  since. 

Two  classes  of  plants  are  in  conmion  use  for  green  manuring 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


21 


^.«d 

'  ^^^^^^,1^-Jy-^^ 

m:si 

^^^i^M^0^^^ 

^%* 

^<^- 

a*-^!'^*  ■-'-■* 

^ 

purposes,  (1)  those  that  add  nothing  except  what  they  get  direct 
from  the  soil  and,  (2)  those  that  increase  the  nitrogen  supply. 
To  the  first  class  belong  such  crops  as  buckwheat,  rye,  rape, 
mustard,  etc.,  and  grass  sods  that  are  ploAved  down.  Although 
these  crops  add  no  element  of  plant  food  to  the  soil,  neverthe- 
less they  are  bene- 
ficial because  they 
gather  food  from 
the  soil  and  on 
tlieir  decay  leave  it 
in  forms  suitable 
for  the  use  of  the 
succeeding  c  r  o  13. 
To  the  second  class 
belong  the  clovers 
and  other  legumes 
that  in  addition  to 
being  humus  form- 
ers, have  the  power 
of  extracting  nitro- 
gen from  the  air 
and  upon  their  de- 
cay making  this  ni- 
trogen available  to 

non-legumes.    Of  the  legumes,  the  crojos  most  extensively  used 
are  red  clover,  cowpeas  and  crimson  clover. 

In  the  East  and  South  crimson  clover  and  vetch  are  frequently 
seeded  in  the  fall  and  serve  as  a  Avinter  cover  croj)  to  be  plowed 
down  for  the  benefit  of  the  spring  crop.  In  the  Middle  West 
rye  is  used  in  the  same  manner.  If  these  cover  crops  are  allowed 
to  make  a  rank  growth  and  are  turned  under  late  in  the  spring 
they  may  work  injury  to  the  succeeding  crop  by  cutting  off  the 
moisture  supply  from  the  deeper  layers  of  soil. 

Commercial  fertilizers. —  As  a  rule  the  manure  produced  on 
the  farm  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  fertility  and  the  purchase 
of  lolant  food  materials  in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers  is 
necessary  to  keep  up  fertility.  The  constantly  growing  demand 
for  something  that  Avill  increase  crop  production  and  help  to 
maintain  fertility  has  given  rise  to  a  commercial  fertilizer 
industry  of  gigantic  proportions. 

Soils  and  crops  differ  in  their  fertilizer  requirements. — 
Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are  the  plant  food  ele- 
ments  most   likely   to   be   deficient   in    soils   or   most   quickly 


Fig.  9.- 


Plowing  under  a  green  manuring  crop  restores 
the  organic  matter. 


22  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


exhausted  by  the  production  and  removal  of  croi)S.  These 
materials  are  known  as  the  essential  jolant  food  materials  or  the 
golden  tripod  upon  which  successful  farming  must  rest. 

The  value  of  a  commercial  fertilizer  is  determined  solely  by 
the  amount  and  the  form  of  the  nitrogen  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  which  it  contains     Since  the  needs  of  the  soil  and  the 

requirements  of  the  crops  vary,  it 
follows  that  not  all  soils  or  all  crops 
will  respond  to  the  use  of  fertiliz- 
ers containing  these  three  elements. 
A  sandy  soil  is  usually  lacking  in  all 
three  of  the  essential  plant  foods 
while  clay  soils  contain  more  of  the 
mineral  elements  and  are  especially 
rich  in  potash.  Black  muck  soils  are 
rich  in  organic  matter  but  lacking  in 
the  mineral  elements,  Avhile  soils  de- 
rived from  certain  geological  forma- 
tions may  be  rich  in  phosphorus  or 
potash  if  these  elements  are  found  in 
abundance  in  the  parent  rock. 

Plants  of  the  clover  family  differ 
from  other  plants  in  being  able  to 
take  up  and  use  the  nitrogen  of  the 
air,  hence  they  are  not  dependent 
upon  the  soil  nitrogen  for  their 
growth.  On  the  other  hand  grass 
and  grain  crops  are  wholly  depend- 
ent upon  the  soil  nitrogen  and  must 
have  an  abundance  during  their 
period  of  most  rapid  groAvth  if  good 
crops  are  to  be  harvested.  This  vari- 
ation in  the  needs  of  soils  and  the  re- 
quirements of  crops  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  every  farmer  should  know 
his  own  i)articular  recpiirements  before  he  can  make  an  eco- 
nomical use  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

Fertilizer  materials. —  From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be 
understood  that  any  material  that  supplies  one  or  more  of  the 
three  essential  elements  may  be  used  as  a  commercial  fertilizer, 
but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  only  a  few  materials  are  available  for 
use  as  fertilizers  because  of  the  prohibitive  price  of  many  of  the 
substances  carrying  plant  food  materials.     The  manufacturers 


¥iG.  10. —  Nodules  on  roots  of 
alfalfa  by  means  of  which 
nitrogen  is  absorbed  from 
the  air. 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  23 

of  commercial  fertilizers  purchase  these  basic  materials  and  mix 
them  together  in  proportions  to  give  the  percentages  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  required  for  their  particular  brands. 
Some  of  these  basic  materials,  such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  or  acid 
phosphate  contain  only  one  of  the  essential  elements  while  others 
like  bone,  or  tankage,  contain  two  of  .the  essential  elements.  The 
materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers  are  known  as 
carriers. 

Nitrogen  carriers. —  The  principal  carriers  of  nitrogen  are 
dried  blood,  meat,  hoof  and  horn  meal,  tankage,  dried  fish, 
leather  meal,  nitrate  of  soda,  and  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Dried  blood  is  the  blood  from  slaughterhouses  that  has  been 
dried  rapidly  and  ground  into  a  fine  powder.  It  contains  from 
six  to  fourteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  the  exact  amount  depending 
upon  the  method  of  preparation. 

Meat,  Jioof  mid  horn  meal  are  dried  animal  materials  from 
slaughterhouses  and  rendering  establishments,  ground  to  fine 
meal.  These  materials  contain  from  ten  to  fourteen  per  cent  of 
nitrogen,  that  in  the  meat  meal  being  much  more  readily  avail- 
able than  that  in  the  hoof  and  horn  meal. 

Tankage  consists  of  the  dried  waste  materials  from  slaughter- 
houses and  is  quite  variable  in  composition.  It  derives  its  value 
both  from  the  phosphoric  acid  as  well  as  from  the  nitrogen  which 
it  contains.  The  nitrogen  content  varies  from  four  to  nine  per 
cent  and  the  phosphoric  acid  from  three  to  twelve  per  cent. 

Dried  fish  is  derived  largely  from  the  menhaden  fisheries  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  from  canning  factories.  The  fish  are 
steamed  and  pressed  to  remove  the  oil  after  which  the  remains 
are  dried  and  ground.  This  product  contains  from  eight  to 
twelve  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  three  to  five  per  cent  of 
phosphoric  acid. 

Leather  meal  is  made  from  small  scraps  of  leather  that  have 
been  ground  into  a  fine  powder.  Because  of  its  low  availability 
it  is  not  a  desirable  source,  of  nitrogen,  and  in  some  states  manu- 
facturers who  use  leather  or  hair  waste  must  make  a  statement 
of  that  fact  in  giving  the  analysis  of  the  fertilizer. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  a  substance  closely  resembling  coarse  table 
salt,  and  since  it  comes  from  Chili  it  is  sometimes  called  Chili 
saltpeter.  It  contains  fifteen  to  sixteen  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and 
is  quickly  and  completely  soluble  in  water,  consequently  its 
nitrogen  is  readily  available  to  plants. 

Stdphate  of  ammonia  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
gas,  animal  charcoal  and  coke.    It  also  resembles  common  salt 


24  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

and  contains  twenty  to  twenty-three  per  cent  of  nitrogen  in  a 
readily  available  form.  It  should  not  be  used  on  soils  that  are 
deficient  in  lime. 

Market  gardeners  and  others  engaged  in  intensive  farming 
need  to  make  liberal  use  of  nitrogenous  commercial  fertilizers, 
but  the  general  farmer  will  find  it  much  more  economical  to 
depend  upon  clovers,  stable  manure  and  green  manuring  crops 
to  furnish  nitrogen,  supplementing  these  sources  by  the  purchase 
of  coimuercial  forms  of  nitrogen  when  it  can  be  done  with  profit. 

Potash  carriers. —  Previous  to  the  war  with  Germany,  practi- 
cally all  of  the  potash  used  for  fertilizers  came  from  that  country 
in  the  form  of  Strassfurt  salts.  Some  of  these  salts  were 
imported  in  their  crude  form,  such  as  kainit,  but  the  great  bulk 
of  the  material  was  brought  over  as  either  muriate  or  sulphate 
of  potash,  both  of  which  contain  about  fifty  per  cent  of  actual 
potash  in  a  soluble  form.  During  the  war  several  sources  of 
potash  were  developed  in  the  United  States.  The  more  impor- 
tant domestic  supplies  come  from  the  brines  of  old  lake  beds  in 
some  of  the  western  states,  from  kelp  or  giant  sea-weeds,  and 
from  flue  dust  collected  from  blast  furnaces  and  cement  mills. 

Most  soils,  especially  clays,  contain  much  more  potash  than 
nitrogen  or  phosphoric  acid  but  the  greater  part  of  this  native 
potash  of  the  soil  is  very  insoluble  and  not  readily  available  for 
the  use  of  crop  plants.  Even  clay  soils  respond  to  light  appli- 
cations of  soluble  potash,  and  for  light,  sandy  soils  and  muck, 
potash  fertilizers  are  absolutely  necessary  for  profitable  crop 
yields.  Potatoes,  tobacco,  and  root  crops  are  heavy  consumers 
of  potash  and  give  generous  response  to  the  use  of  fertilizers 
high  in  potash. 

Phosphoric  acid  carriers. —  The  phosphorus  found  in  ferti- 
lizers is  derived  mainly  either  from  the  minerals  of  certain 
rocks,  or  from  the  bones  and  the  tankage  from  slaughterhouses. 

Mineral  phosphates  are  obtained  from  extensive  phosphate 
rock  deposits  found  in  the  Carolinas  and  in  Tennessee  and 
Florida.  These  rocks  contain  from  eighteen  to  thirty-two  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  are  sometimes  marketed  as  fine 
ground  raw  phosphate  rock  or  floats,  the  material  being  pre- 
pared for  fertilizer  purposes  by  grinding  the  raw  rock  to  a  very 
fine  powder  without  previous  treatment.  Since  this  material  is 
not  readily  soluble  it  should  be  used  only  in  connection  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  manure  or  where  green  manuring  crops  are 
being  plowed  under.  The  rotting  of  the  manure  and  the  decay 
of  the  green  manuring  crops  in  the  soil  produce  acids  which 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  25 

attack  the  fine  rock  particles  and  help  to  liberate  the  phosphorus. 
Experience  has  shown  that  the  raw  ground  rock  can  he  used 
with  j^rofit  when  plowed  under  with  green  manuring  crops  like 
clover  or  soy  beans  and  that  it  has  a  high  fertilizing  value  when 
mixed  with  stable  manure. 

The  mineral  phosphates  are  usually  found  on  the  market  in 
the  form  of  acid  phosphate  w^hich  is  made  by  treating  the  raw 
ground  phosphate  rock  with  acid  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
phosphorus  soluble  in  water  and  immediately  available  for  the 
use  of  the  crop.  The  better  grades  of  acid  phosphates  contain 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Bone  phosphates. —  Most  of  the  bone  sold  for  fertilizer  pur- 
poses is  in  the  form  of  a  meal  that  is  made  by  grinding  the  bones 
that  have  previously  been  treated  with  steam  to  remove  the  fat 
and  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  compounds.  Steamed  bone  meal  con.- 
tains  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of  nitrogen  and  from  twenty- 
eight  to  thirty  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  is  considered  to 
be  more  valuable  than  the  raw  bone  meal  for  fertilizer  purposes, 
because  the  steamed  bone  can  be  much  more  finely  ground  and 
the  removal  of  the  fat  causes  the  particles  to  decay  more  rapidly 
in  the  soil.  Tankage,  mentioned  under  nitrogen  carriers,  is 
sometimes  called  bone  tankage  if  it  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  bone.  Tankage  varies  greatly  in  the  amount  of  phosphorus 
carried,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  quantity  of  bone  present 
in  the  waste  material. 

Phosphorus  is  present  in  the  soil  in  much  smaller  quantities 
than  potash  and  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  more  likely  to 
become  exhausted  than  is  the  potash.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  phosphates  are  practically  the  only  commercial  fertilizer 
used. 

Mixed  fertilizers. —  In  the  making  of  conmiercial  fertilizers 
the  manufacturer  mixes  two  or  more  of  the  foregoing  carriers 
in  the  correct  proportions  to  give  the  desired  percentage  compo- 
sition of  nitrogen  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The  fertilizer 
unit  is  one  per  cent  of  a  ton,  or  twenty  poundSo  A  three-ten-four 
fertilizer  is  one  that  contains  three  units,  or  sixty  pounds  of 
nitrogen  or  ammonia,  ten  units,  or  two  hundred  pounds  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid,  and  four  units,  or  eighty  pounds  of  potash. 
The  trade  or  commercial  value  of  such  a  mixture  should  be 
determined  solely  by  the  number  of  pounds  of  plant  food 
materials  w^hich  it  contains.  The  agricultural  value  of  a  ferti- 
lizer is  determined  by  the  extent  to  which  the  mixture  supplies 
the  needs  of  the  soil  and  meets  the  requirements  of  the  crops  to 


26  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

which  it  is  applied,  and  does  not  necessarily  haTe  any  connection 
with  the  price  or  trade  value.  For  example,  on  a  soil  already 
well  supplied  with  nitrogen  and  potash  a  ton  of  acid  phosphate 
costing  twenty  dollars  may  have  the  same  or  a  greater  value 
than  the  same  amount  of  complete  fertilizer  costing  fifty  dollars 
per  ton. 

Calculating  and  comparing  trade  values. —  To  calculate  the 
price  per  unit,  the  price  per  ton  should  be  divided  by  the  per  cent 
of  plant  food  contained.  Thus,  for  example,  if  it  is  desired  to 
determine ,  what  sixteen  per  cent  acid  phosphate,  selling  at 
twenty-four  dollars  per  ton,  is  worth  per  unit,  divide  twenty- 
four  dollars  by  sixteen,  which  gives  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents 
as  the  price  per  unit.  To  determine  the  price  of  potash  in  an 
0-12-4  fertilizer,  selling  at  thirty-four  dollars  per  ton,  first 
deduct  the  value  of  the  twelve  units  of  phosphoric  acid  which, 
at  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents,  is  eighteen  dollars.  This  leaves 
sixteen  dollars  as  the  price  of  the  four  units  of  potash.  Dividing 
sixteen  dollars  by  four,  gives  four  dollars  as  the  price  per  unit 
of  potash.  If,  next,  it  is  desired  to  know  the  price  of  nitrogen 
in  a  2-12-4  fertilizer,  selling  at  forty-six  dollars  per  ton,  deduct 
first  the  value  of  the  twelve  units  of  phosphoric  acid  and  four 
units  of  potash,  which  is  thirty-four  dollars.  This  leaves  twelve 
dollars  as  the  price  of  the  two  units  of  nitrogen.  Dividing  twelve 
dollars  by  two,  gives  six  dollars  as  the  price  per  unit  of  nitrogen. 

Quantity  and  kind  of  fertilizer  to  use. —  The  quantity  of 
fertilizer  used  must  be  related  to  the  value  of  the  crop  treated. 
The  higher  the  acre  value  of  a  crop,  the  larger  the  quantity  of 
fertilizer  that  ma3^  be  used  profitably.  The  season  when  a  crop 
growls  influences  the  need  for  fertilizers.  Grain  and  ha}^  crops 
may  usually  receive  an  application  of  two  hundred  to  four  hun- 
dred pounds,  potatoes  six  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds, 
garden  and  vegetable  crops  one  thousand  to  two  thousand 
pounds,  and  fruits  five  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds. 

Crops  that  mature  seed  are  usually  those  most  benefited  by 
phosphorus.  Crops  that  make  a  large  vegetative  growth  i'n 
leaves,  roots,  and  flowers,  and  are  used  for  those  parts,  are 
especially  benefited  by  nitrogen.  Potassium  is  most  used  in  stem 
and  root  plants;  this  element  gives  stiffness  to  straw,  and  is 
especially  beneficial  to  leguminous  crops  and  to  root  crops. 

Plants  that  start  growth  in  early  spring  or  late  fall  generally 
are  benefited  by  the  addition  of  a  little  available  fertilizer, 
especially  nitrogen. 

In  the  absence  of  knowledge  that  the  soil  is  well  supplied  with 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT 


27 


■  FERTILIzeO 

■  24  BUS 

tk 

B 

Fig.  11. — The  agricultural  value  of  a  fertilizer  is  determined  by  the  extent  to  which 
the  mixture  supplies  the  needs  of  the  soil.  The  piles  of  wheat  shown  in  A  and  B 
were  grown  on  the  same  area  of  land. 


28     THE  .HANDBTOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


one  or  more  elements  in  available  form,  the  safest  plan  is  to  use 
a  moderate  quantity  of  a  complete  high-grade  fertilizer.  The 
following  are  some  good  standard  combinations  in  percentage : 


Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
acid 

Potash 

1  

4 
4 
3 
2 
3 
6 

10 

8 
5 

8 

6 

2 

10 

3                          

5 

4                                  

12 

5                                             

15 

6          

Numbers  1  and  3  constitute  good  fertilizers  for  almost  any 
crop  on  a  normal  soil.  Nmnbers  2  and  4  are  relatively  stronger 
in  potash  for  potatoes,  root  crops,  and  legumes.  Number  5  is 
especially  suited  for  muck  soil.  Number  6  is  especially  a 
vegetable  fertilizer  on  normal  upland  soil  in  good  condition. 

Generally,  large  applications  of  fertilizers  should  be  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  soil  rather  than  placed  in  the  hill  or  the 
row.  Small  applications  are  more  effective  when  applied  in 
the  rows. 

Home-mixing^  of  fertilizers. —  Commercial  fertilizers  may  be 
purchased  ready-mixed  or  the  materials  may  be  bought  and 
mixed  at  home.  Home-mixing  is  advisable  for  the  farmer  who 
is  in  position  to  study  the  subject  since  the  purchase  of  the 
materials  separately  enables  him  to  be  sure  that  he  is  getting 
only  high-grade  carriers  and,  furthermore,  he  is  able  to  have  a 
slow  or  a  quick  acting  fertilizer,  as  the  needs  of  his  crop  may 
demand. 

The  mixing  of  the  materials  is  comparatively  simple.  Any 
tight  floor  or  wagon  box  may  be  used  and  the  only  tools  required 
are  shovels  and  a  screen.  The  materials  are  weighed  out  and 
spread  in  layers,  the  most  bulky  first,  and  then  thoroughly  shov- 
eled over.  The  mix4;ure  is  then  passed  through  a  sand  screen 
and  the  lumps  broken  up  with  the  back  of  a  shovel.  When  large 
quantities  are  to  be  mixed  the  use  of  a  small  rotary  concrete 
mixer  is  advised.  The  mixing  should  be  continued  until  the 
whole  pile  is  fine  and  uniform  after  which  it  may  be  used  at 
once  or  bagged  and  stored  in  a  dry  place  for  future  use. 

The  following  table  gives  the  information  necessary  to  make 
mixtures  of  any  desired  percentage  composition.  To  make  up  a 
three-ten-four  mixture  using  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  29 

(sixteen  per  cent),  and  muriate  of  potash,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  take  three  times  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  pounds,  or 
three  hundred  and  ninety-nine  iDOUnds,  of  nitrate  of  soda;  ten 
times  one  hundred  and  twenty-five,  or  one  thousand  two  hundred 
and  iifty  pounds  of  acid  phosphate ;  and  four  times  forty,  or  one 
hundred  and  sixty  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash.  This  will  make 
a  total  of  1809  pounds,  to  which  can  be  added  one  hundred  and 
ninety-one  pounds  of  sand  or  muck  to  make  the  Avei^lit  up  to 
one  ton.  In  a  similar  manner  any  other  fertilizer  formula  may 
be  duplicated  by  using  this  table. 

Qt^\ntity  of  Carriers  Necessary  to  Make  One  Per  cent 


INOREDIEXT 

POUNDS     NECESSARY 
TO    MAKE  ONE  PER 
CENT 

C'iuriers  of  iiitiogen: 
Nitrate  of   soda 

133 

100 

Dried  blood 

200 

Carriers  of  piiosphorus: 

142 

125 

Carriers  of  potash: 

]\Iuriate  of  potash.  .  . 

40 

Kelp  ash   ( 30% ) 

66 

Nebraska  potash   ( 22% ) 

90 

Liming  the  soil. —  On  acid  soils  lime  must  be  applied  before 
the  best  results  can  be  secured.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  lime  cannot  take  the  place  of  fertilizers,  nor  can  fer- 
tilizers take  the  place  of  lime.  The  first  step  in  building  up 
fertility  is  to  make  sure  that  the  land  is  well  supplied  with  lime, 
since  without  lime  it  is  not  possible  to  grow  clovers  and  other 
legumes  successfully  and  without  clover  sod  or  legume  cover 
crops  the  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil  cannot  be  economically 
maintained  under  average  conditions. 

One  of  the  easiest  methods  for  testing  the  soil  for  acidity  and 
the  need  for  lime  is  the  litmus  paper  test.  A  sample  of  soil  is 
moistened  with  distilled  or  rain  water  and  a  strip  of  either  blue 
or  neutral  litmus  paper  is  pressed  into  the  moist  sample.  If 
after  a  few  minutes  the  paper  turns  red  the  soil  is  acid  and  in 
need  of  lime.  Since  clover  and  alfalfa  are  very  easily  injured 
by  acid  conditions,  a  good  stand  of  either  of  these  legumes  is  a 
good  indication  that  lime  is  not  needed. 

Kind  of  lime  to  use. — When  a  ton  of  pure  limestone  or  oyster 


30  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


shell  is  burned,  about  one  thousand  one  hundred  aild  twenty 
pounds  01  stone  or  burned  lime  is  produced.  When  this  is 
slaked  it  takes  up  water  until  it  weighs  about  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  and  is  known  as  hydrated 
lime.  When  this  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time  it  goes 
back  to  the  carbonate  or  limestone  form  and  to  the  original 
weight.  Since  all  lime  quickly  reverts  in  the  soil,  the  form  in 
which  it  is  applied  is  of  importance  only  in  regard  to  its  con- 
centration and  the  fineness  of  the  particles.  Raw  ground  lime- 
stone or  oyster  shell  have  only  about  half  the  strength  of  burned 
lime  and  two-thirds  that  of  the  hydrated  lime. 


Fig.  12. — Twelve  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre  with  fertilizer  alone;  twenty  bushels  with 
lime  and  fertilizer.  The  first  step  in  building  up  fertility  is  to  make  sure  that 
the  soil  is  supplied  with  lime. 

The  value  of  any  form  of  lime  depends  upon  the  total 
percentage  of  calcium  and  magnesimn  oxide  contained.  Ground 
limestone  or  shell  should  contain  about  fifty  per  cent  of  total 
oxide;  hydrated  lime  about  seventy  per  cent;  and  lump  or 
burned  lime  above  ninety  per  cent.  To  compare  the  prices  on 
several  kinds  of  lime  divide  the  cost  per  ton  of  each,  delivered, 
by  its  percentage  of  oxide.  This  gives  the  cost  per  unit  or  per 
twenty  pounds  of  oxide  or  actual  lime. 

Applying  lime. —  Crops  that  grow  moderately  well  on  sour 
soil  are  potatoes,  tomatoes,  buckwheat,  berries,  carrots,  water- 
melons and  red-top  grass.  Practically  all  other  crops  are  bene- 
fited by  lime,  but  the  most  responsive  crops  are  alfalfa,  clover, 


SOIL  MANAGEMENT  31 

soy  beans,  corn,  oats,  wlicat,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  beets, 
cucmnbers,  lettuce,  onions,  spinach  and  sweet  potatoes. 

Since  lime  is  gradually  cari-ied  downward  in  the  soil,  it  should 
be  applied  to  the  ploAved  surface  and  worked  in  as  the  seed-bed 
is  prepared.  Truck  farmers  sometimes  plow  under  burned  lime 
and  manure  together  in  order  to  hasten  the  action  of  the  ]nanure, 
but  in  general  farm  i^ractice  the  manure  should  be  plowed  down 
before  the  lime  is  applied,  otherwise  much  of  the  value  of  the 
manure  Avill  be  lost. 

Have  your  county  agricultural  agent  test  the  soil  from  your 
fields,  lie  can  tell  you  not  only  whether  lime  is  needed,  but  also 
how  much  you  should  use  of  the  different  forms  to  supply  the 
lime  requirements  of  your  soil. 


CHAPTER   11 

LAXD  DKAINAGE 
By  Elmer  O.  Pippin,  B.S.A.* 

Evidences  of  the  need  for  drainage. —  Large  areas  of  farm 
land  are  too  wet  for  the  best  growth  of  croi)s.  Land  is  too  wet 
whenever  within  the  zone  of  soil  in  which  the  roots  of  crops 
develop,  namely,  about  three  feet  of  the  surface,  free  water 
would  stand  in  an  excavation.  Drainage  does  not  remove  useful 
water  from  the  soil.  It  removes  the  injurious  surplus  water  from 
the  soil.  Remember  that  the  roots  of  the  usual  type  of  farm 
crops  —  corn,  wheat,  clover,  fruit  trees  and  that  type  of  plants 
—  will  not  live  in  a  soil  saturated  with  stagnant  water  for  more 
than  two  or  three  days,  and  even  that  period  of  submergence 
weakens  the  general  vitality  of  the  plant. 

This  line  of  observation  should  suggest  to  the  reader  that  it 
is  not  necessary  that  Avater  stand  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  or 
even  in  the  plow  furrow  in  order  that  the  soil  be  poorly  drained. 
Roots  of  most  crops  penetrate  two,  three  and  even  four  and  five 
feet  deep  if  given  an  opportunity,  and  therefore  the  creation  of 
perfect  conditions  for  crop  growth  requires  that  the  possibilities 
of  standing  water  in  the  soil  within  a  depth  of  at  least  two  feet 
should  be  avoided  by  artificial  drainage  if  the  natural  drainage 
is  inadequate  for  that  purpose. 

Other  indications  of  a  wet  soil,  in  addition  to  that  soft,  mirey 
character,  familiar  to  all,  are  severe  ''heaving"  when  it  freezes; 
curled  leaves  of  crops  on  such  areas  in  dry  periods,  and  areas 
of  weeds  such  as  planton  and  other  plants  best  able  to  withstand 
such  conditions.  Li  addition,  the  subsoil  that  is  poorly  drained 
has  a  mottled  color  and  otherwise  shows  by  its  appearance  that 
it  is  inclined  to  be  too  wet.  The  more  intensive  the  type  of  crop 
production  the  more  important  it  is  that  good  drainage  should 
be  insured. 

Why  land  is  wet. —  Land  may  be  wet  from  a  number  of  causes. 
Throughout  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States,  and,  in  fact, 
wherever  the  annual  rainfall  exceeds  thirty-five  inches,  there  is 
more  water  than  crops  require  or  the  soil  can  retain  in  the  film 

*  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

32 


LAND  DRAINAGE  33 

form,  from  which  crop  roots  are  chiefly  supplied.  In  fact,  in 
such  regions  from  one-fifth  to  more  than  one-half  of  the  rainfall 
ultimately  drains  into  the  streams. 

On  any  soil  of  a  dense  structure,  such  as  clay,  and  on  loamy 
and  lighter  soils  having  a  compact  sub  strata,  and  also  where 
the  soil  may  be  loose  and  porous,  but  shallow,  due  to  the  near 
approach  of  bed  rock,  this  surplus  water  is  held  too  long  in  the 
root  zone  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Such  land  needs  drainage. 
This  condition  may,  and  frequently  does,  occur  on  quite  steep 
slopes.    A  hillside  is  no  guarantee  that  good  soil  drainage  exists. 

Another  type  of  wet  land  is  of  the  springy  sort.  For  one 
reason  or  another,  the  general  underground  flow  of  this  surplus 
water  is  brought  to  the  surface  by  some  impervious  strata  and 
appears  as  springs  of  greater  or  less  persistence  and  value.  No 
fixed  rules  for  their  occurrence  can  be  laid  down  beyond  that 
already  stated.  The  observations  and  experience  of  the  average 
individual  will  indicate  to  him  that  they  may  occur  on  a  broad 
flat  as  well  as  on  a  hillside  or  in  the  more  common  position  at 
the  foot  of  a  slope. 

Then  there  is  the  wet  land  due  to  the  overflow  of  streams  at 
periods  of  high  water  and  the  land  that  is  wet  because  it  is  so 
near  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  water  in  some  adjacent 
stream,  pond,  lake  or  even  the  ocean;  for  there  are  thousands 
of  acres  of  tidal  marsh  land.  Wet  land  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  types,  namely  (a)  swamp  or  marsh  land  and  (b)  mod- 
erately or  intermittently  wet  land. 

Extent  of  wet  land. — The  total  area  of  wet  farm  land  in  the 
United  States  is  very  large.  Swamp  and  marsh  land  aggregates 
something  like  twelve  thousand  square  miles,  or  upwards  of 
seventy-five  million  acres.  The  very  much  larger  area  of  wet 
land  falls  in  the  second  or  intermittently  wet  group.  This  area 
is  included  in  farms  and  is  more  or  less  under  cultivation.  East 
of  the  eastern  line  of  Kansas  the  area  of  farm  land  now  being 
cultivated  that  is  giving  inadequate  returns  because  of  poor 
drainage  aggregates  several  times  the  area  of  swamp  and  marsh 
land.  Every  farmer  should  understand  that  his  first  problem  is 
to  drain  this  wet  land  on  which  he  is  expending  money  for  labor, 
materials  and  interest  to  grow  poor  crops.  This  is  the  really  big 
farm  drainage  problem  in  any  part  of  the  world  having  a  rain- 
fall similar  to  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  The  inter- 
mittent wetness  of  such  land  is  even  more  injurious  than  is  con- 
stant wetness  because  it  results  in  wider  extremes  of  moisture 
supply  to  the  crop. 


34     THE  HxiXDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Types  of  drainage. — There  are  two  general  classes  of  drain- 
age: (1)  Open  drains;  and  (2)  under  drains.  Any  channel  or 
opening  which  joermits  the  removal  of  the  excess  water  in  a  soil 
is  a  drain.  It  ma}^  he  an  open  ditch  or  canal  so  small  as  that 
made  Avith  a  shovel  plow,  or  it  may  be  as  large  as  a  river.  It 
may  he  an  nndergronnd  channel  maintained  by  poles  or  brush 
or  straw  or  stone  or  boards  in  the  form  of  a  box,  or  in  tight  clay 
it  may  be  an  unwalled  opening  made  by  a  mold  plow.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  may  be  an  opening  nicely  graded  and  carefully 
arranged  in  a  system  of  more  or  less  parallel  channels  lined  with 
short  sections  of  clay  or  cement  pipe  or  drain  tile,  and  finally, 
where  there  is  a  rather  thin,  impervious  strata  on  w^hich  water 
is  held  and  below  Avhich  is  a  porous  strata,  such  as  gravel,  sand 
or  a  porous  rock,  drainage  may  be  provided  by  means  of  a  well 
dug,  drilled  or  formed  by  an  explosive  through  the  impervious 
layer  down  to  the  porous  strata.  This  latter  is  verticle  drainage 
applicable  to  only  a  very  limited  area  of  land. 

One's  choice  of  these  different  methods  of  drainage  must  be 
guided  by  the  conditions  of  soil  and  rainfall,  the  area  of  land, 
volume  of  water,  grades  and  other  features  with  which  he  has 
to  deal  in  a  particular  case.  It  is  usually  unwise  to  attempt  to 
follow  any  set  rules  for  drainage.  One  should  study  the  par- 
ticular conditions  at  hand,  consider  the  underlying  principles 
involved  and  proceed  accordingly.  A  great  many  conditions  of 
wet  land  can  be  worked  out  by  the  average  farmer  with  such 
facilities  as  he  may  have  at  hand. 

Beneficial  effects  of  draining*. —  But  why,  it  may  be  asked,  is 
proper  drainage  of  the  soil  so  fundamental  to  good  soil  manage- 
ment? First  of  all,  remember  that  practically  all  of  the  crops 
ordinarily  cultivated  are  accustomed  to  grow  in  soil  in  Avhich  is 
distributed  sufficient  free  air  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  roots  for 
their  proper  functioning.  Roughly,  this  amount  is  represented 
by  a  well-drained  soil  in  good  tilth.  As  an}^  farmer  knows,  the 
tilth  or  physical  heart  of  the  soil  is  linked  up  with  its  moisture 
condition.  Therefore,  in  enumerating  the  benefits  of  drainage, 
we  may  start  Avith  its  effects  on  the  physical  condition  or  tilth 
of  the  soil.  (1)  Reasonable  drainage  is  the  first  recpiisite  to  the 
maintenance  of  that  fine  friable  granular  condition  of  soil  known 
as  good  tilth.  Wet  soils,  if  clayey,  are  usually  lumpy  when  dry. 
Otherwise,  they  are  very  compact  and  impervious.  (2)  Good 
tilth  results  in  a  larger  pore  space  in  Avhich  to  store  available 
moisture  and  necessary  air  for  the  roots.  It  means  better  and 
deeper  ventilation.    This  results  (3)  in  deeper  root  penetration. 


LAND  DRAINAGE  35 

As  a  consequence  of  all  tliese  changes  (4)  the  soil  actually  car- 
ries more  water  available  to  crops  and  drouth  periods  are  l3etter 
withstood  than  on  poorly  drained  land,  especially  intermittently 
wet  ujoland.  One  wa}^  to  locate  wet  land  is  to  observe  the  wet 
spots  where  the  leaves  of  crops  are  curled  in  dry  weather. 
(5)  They  are  less  subject  to  the  damaging  effect  of  freezing  and 
thawing,  especially  on  winter  croj)S.  (6)  All  the  myriads  of 
beneficial  bacteria  in  the  soil  and  necessary  to  its  fertility  are 
favored  by  good  drainage  and  the  conditions  incident  to  it.  This 
includes  the  organisms  that  bring  about  the  formation  of  humus 
and  the  fixation  of  nitrogen  and  its  changes  into  available  forms. 
(7)  Drained  soil  Avarms  earlier  in  the  sjoring  and  maintains  a 
higher  average  temperature  than  wet  soil.  (8)  Less  time  is  lost 
after  a  rain  and  in  getting  crops  jilanted  in  the  spring.  The 
farm  equipment  and  labor  may  be  more  efficiently  managed. 
(9)  All  the  various  materials  in  the  soil  used  by  the  plant  as 
food  are  rendered  more  available  by  the  conditions  that  have 
been  enmnerated.  The  need  for  fertilizers  may  be  reduced  and 
the  efficiency  of  that  applied  will  be  increased. 

AVet  land  is  usually  the  potentially  best  land  on  the  farm  and 
it  usiially  responds  with  big  crops  Avhen  this  condition  is 
corrected. 

Open  drains. — Very  little  need  be  said  to  the  average  farmer 
concerning  open  drains.  The  smaller  sizes  suitable  for  the  small 
farm  are  simple  trenches  with  such  slope  to  the  wall  as  to  pre- 
vent serious  covering  of  the  banks.  Usually  they  may  be  fairly 
steep.  For  large  channels  a  one-half  slope  is  common.  This  is 
a  slope  formed  by  a  one-foot  vertical  rise  for  a  foot  of  horizontal 
distance  on  the  bank.  For  smaller  channels  a  steeper  slope, 
namely,  one  foot  vertical  to  one-half  foot  horizontal,  or  even  less, 
is  used.  Bends  should  begin  and  end  gradually  like  the  curve  in 
a  railroad.  Right-angle  turns  should  be  avoided.  Keep  the 
channel  clean  and  in  good  form. 

lender  the  best  conditions,  open  ditches  are  veiy  objection- 
able. (1)  They  obstruct  and  waste  the  land  surface.  (2)  They 
are  very  likely  to  be  filled  up  with  weeds  and  sediment. 
(3)  They  harbor  weeds.  (4)  Most  serious  of  all,  the  smaller 
ditches,  especially  those  so  frequently  made  Avith  a  shovel  or 
turning  plow  and  which  are  only  six  to  ten  inches  deep,  scarcely 
remove  surface  Avater  and  do  not  accomplish  the  purposes  of 
real  internal  soil  drainage.  At  the  best,  this  type  of  open  ditch 
is  very  inefficient.  On  the  other  hand,  due  to  the  need  for  tem- 
porary results,  or  on  very  Ioav,  flat  land,  or  Avhere  a  very  large 


36  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


volume  of  water  must  be  handled,  the  ojpen  ditch  may  be  the 
only  available  means  of  drainage. 

Under  drains. —  Farm  drainage  should  generally  be  synony- 
mous with  tile  drainage.  Covered  drains  of  any  kind  free  the 
surface  of  obstruction  and  are  likely  to  be  more  permanent  and 
less  expensive  to  maintain  than  open  ditches.  Tile  drains,  where 
needed,  and  in  which  good  clay  or  cement  tiles  are  used,  are 
both  a  satisfaction  and  the  very  best  kind  of  a  business  invest- 
ment. The  earlier  substitutes,  such  as  poles,  brush  and  stone 
drains,  now  have  very  little  place  in  competition  with  tile  for 
drainage  purposes.  They  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  expensive 
to  construct,  and  much  less  permanent,  especially  on  low  grades. 


Fig.  13. — Yiew  of  system  of  xinderdrains  placed  at  regular  in- 
tervals. Adapted  to  land  wet  throughout  and  on  which 
intensive  cropping  is  to  be  practiced. — Neto  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture. 

In  a  few  cases,  namely,  where  the  bottom  is  very  soft  or  w^here 
they  are  deeply  placed  and  where  the  soil  has  a  very  pronounced 
tendency  to  silting  the  drain,  wooden  box  drains  may  be  the 
better  material.  This  is  especially  true  in  draining  seepy,  irri- 
gated lands.  But  for  the  humid  land  farmer,  tile  drains  are 
usually  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  drainage. 

Quality  of  tile. — A  good  tile  has  walls  that  are  nearly  or  quite 
impervious  to  water,  that  are  straight  and  fairly  square  at  the 
ends,  smooth  inside  and  Avithout  flaws  due  to  lime  nodules  or 
pebbles  in  the  clay.  They  should  give  a  sharp,  clear  ring  when 
struck  with  a  hammer.  They  may  be  either  hexagonal  or  round. 
A  single  flat  side  is  an  undesirable  form,  since  it  increases  the 


LAND  DEAINAGE 


37 


difficulty  of  forming  a  good  joint.    Horseshoe  tile  are  even  more 
undesirable  for  the  same  reason. 

Impervious  walls  are  especially  important  in  any  cold  region 
where  the  tile  is'  likely  to  freeze  in  the  ground.  The  degree  of 
porosity  that  may  be  found  in  so-called,  soft  tile  does  not  add 
to  their  efficiency  as  drains,  since  water  enters  the  drain  through 
the  joints  between  the 
tile.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  walls  of  a 
tile  may  be  so  porous 
as  to  take  up  as  much 
as  twenty  per  cent  of 
water  in  the  minute 
capillary  pores,  and 
when  this  freezes  the 
wall  of  the  tile  is 
ruptured,  and  if  the 
process  is  repeated 
enough  times  the  tile 
will  crumble  to  pieces. 
Even  one  or  two  such 
weak  pieces  in  a  line 
of  drains  may  jeo 
pardize  the  system 
without  any  corre- 
sponding benefit. 

The  choice  between, 
good  clay  tile  and 
concrete  tile  turns 
primarily  on  this 
point  of  the  porosity 
of  the  walls.  Unless 
very  carefully  made, 
the  concrete  tile  is 
likely  to  be  the  more 
porous.  If  concrete  tile  are  used,  there  should  be  added  to  the 
cement  about  ten  per  cent  of  its  volume  of  hydrated  lime,  which 
will  make  the  walls  more  impervious. 

Joints. — The  construction  of  the  joints  is  a  critical  part  of 
the  system.  Imperfect  form  of  the  ends  of  the  tile  will  usually 
make  it  easy  to  leave  an  opening  one-sixteenth  to  as  much  as 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide.  The  larger  opening  should  be  on 
the  under  side.     The  more  the  soil  in  contact  with  the  tile  has 


Fig.  14. — The  most  common  types  of  drainage  tile  and 
other  materials  used  for  land  drainage: 

1.  Cobblestones  with  smaller  pieces  of  stone  on 

top. 

2.  Flat  stones  placed  face  to  face  and  parallel 

to  line  of  ditch. 
3   and   4.      Throated   drains  constructed   of   flat 

stones  used  in  difi'erent  ways. 
Pole  drain. 

Triangular  box  drain. 
Square   box    drain.      Note    construction    for 

admission  of  water  along  lower  edge. 
Horseshoe  tile  laid  on  a  board. 
Horseshoe  tile,  bottom  attached. 
Single  sole  tile  with  round  opening. 
Double  sole  tile. 
Hexagonal  tile. 
Round  tile. 

Y-shaped  junction  piece. 
Elbow  piece. 

— Tslew  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 


5. 
0. 

7. 

S. 

n. 

10. 

11. 

12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 


38  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


that  soft  quicksand  quality,  the  more  important  it  is  to  have 
good  close  joints.  It  is  a  good  plan  in  all  cases  to  cover  the 
upper  half  to  two-thirds  the  joint  with  a  strip  of  tar  paper  or 
burlap  about  three  inches  wide.  Water  should  enter  the  tile 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  joint.  In  tight  clay  or  in  other  soil 
inclined  to  hardpan  properties,  a  fairly  open  joint  with  this 
covering  on  the  top  will  greatly  facilitate  drainage. 

Suitable  grades  for  drains. — The  low  grade  or  slope  at  which 
a  tile  drain  will  operate  efficiently  is  one  of  the  big  advantages 
it  has  over  open  ditches  where  the  smaller  volumes  of  water  are 
to  be  handled.  If  the  slope  is  straiglit  a  tile  will  operate  on  as 
small  a  grade  as  one  or  two  inches  per  hundred  feet.  Naturally 
this  minimum  depends  on  the  size  of  the  tile,  the  number  of 
turns,  and  the  inclination  to  accumulate  sediment,  all  of  which 
interfere  with  the  use  of  low  grade.  Eight  inches  to  one  foot 
of  fall  in  one  hundred  feet  of  length  is  a  more  satisfactory 
grade  upon  which  to  operate  and  simplifies  the  details  of  form- 
ing the  trench  to  receive  the  tile.  AYhere  very  large  grades  are 
used  there  is  danger  that  the  tile  may  be  washed  out  by  water 
flowing  along  the  outside  of  the  tile  in  flood  periods  unless  the 
soil  is  worked  down  very  closely  around  the  tile. 

Arrangement  of  tile. — The  arrangement  and  size  of  tile  are 
questions  specially  related  to  the  particular  land  to  be  drained. 

First  of  all,  if  there  is 
any  doubt  about  the  direc- 
tion and  extent  of  grades 
available,  a  survey  ade- 
quate to  the  situation 
should  be  made.  It  may 
involve  the  use  of  a  very 
accurate  leveling  instru- 
ment with  determination 
of  the  form  of  the  land 
surface  and  position  of 
important  points  and 
lines  from  which  to  con- 
struct a  map,  or  it  may 
involve  only  a  few  rough 
levels  such  as  may  be  se- 
,     „  ,    .  cured   from   the   flow   or 

Fig.  15. —  Sketch  showing  a  "random     drainage  ,i       i         i       ,?  ,  ,1 

system    and    the    location    of    tile    used    in  the  ICVel  Ot  Water,  Or  the 

draining    forty    acres     of     land     in     Scott  -j^gg    of    the    leSS    aCCUrate 
County,  111.     Only  part  of  this  land  needed  r?     i         i  i 

drainage.-t7.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  type     of     levels     SUch     as 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


39 


may  be  devised  from  a  carpenter's  level  and  a  straight  edged 
board. 

A  little  assistance  and  advice  from  someone  experienced  in 
land  drainage  to  determine  the  layout  of  the  drain  and  the  size 
of  the  tile  may  be  the  means  of  saving  the  entire  investment 
with  the  benefit  that  should  occur.  These  details  are  funda- 
mental to  the  system  and  one  dare  not  slight  them. 

Construction  for  particular  conditions. —  Having  established 
the  grades  available  on  any  particular  area,  certain  types  of 
soil  condition  may  be  considered 
with  reference  to  the  arrange- 
ment and  depth  of  drains.  A 
series  of  drains  either  in  par- 
allel lines  or  in  lines  having 
irregular  arrangement  may  be 
joined  together  in  a  system  hav- 
ing a  single  outlet  just  as  the 
rills  and  creeks  unite  to  form 
the  larger  rivers.  There  are 
two  general  types  of  arrange- 
ment namely,  (1)  the  natural  or 
irregular  system  in  which  the 
drains  are  placed  in  hollow^s  or 
at  strategic  places  to  catch  the 
drainage  w^ater,  but  do  not  cover 
the  entire  area  at  regular  inter- 
vals, (2)  the  regular  or  parallel 
system  in  w^liich  lines  of  tile  at 
regular  intervals  are  arranged 
parallel,  in  so  far  as  the  uni- 
formity of  the  slope  Avill  per- 
mit. 

On  flat  land  of  tight,  clayey 
texture,  drains  are  likely  to  be 
needed  at  fairly  regular  inter- 
vals of  from  four  to  five  rods  for 
mixed  general  farming,  down  to 
two  rods  or  less  for  the  more 
intensive  special  cropping,  such  as  vegetable  gardening.  Then, 
too,  they  should  not  be  too  deep.  Two  to  tw^o  and  a  half  feet 
is  sufficient  for  laterals.  If  the  subsoil  has  pronounced  hard- 
pan  properties  an  even  less  depth  may  be  advisable  up  to  eigh- 
teen inches.    This  is  a  very  exceptional  case.    The  point  is  that 


Fig.  16. — Sketch  showing  a  systoin  of 
drainage  in  whicli  the  cost  of  in- 
stalling is  increased  by  too  much 
double  draining. — TJ.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture, 


40  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


in  such  soil  the  water  mostly  moves  over  the  surface  or  through 

the  upper  soil  and  will  thereby  reach  a  shallow  drain  more 

readily  than  a  deep  one. 
"V^Tien  a  tight  soil  underlies  a  porous  soil  within  three  or  four 

feet,  the  best  position  in  which  to  place  the  tile  is  at  the  junc- 
tion of  these  two  materials.  A 
shallow  trough  in  the  hard  mate- 
rial in  which  to  lay  the  tile  should 
be  formed  if  the  tile  would  be  less 
than  three  feet  from  the  surface 
of  the  land. 

"Wherever  the  subsoil  has  tough 
cla}^  properties,  it  should  be  dried 
before  it  is  returned  to  the  trench. 
A  hardpan  quality  of  soil  should 
not  be  placed  on  the  tile  if  a 
porous  top  soil  is  reasonably 
available. 

Loose  sandy  land,  if  wet,  re- 
sults from  some  pocket  or  ob- 
struction in  the  subsoil.  The 
drains  should  be  placed  at  a  me- 
dium depth  of  three  to  four  feet, 
since  the  water  table  rises  in  the 
soil  until  it  reaches  the  level  of 
the  drain.  Often  a  rim  of  tough 
soil  will  be  encountered  which 
may  be  primarily  responsible  for 


^e-. 


^ 


JZ 


fiG.  17. — Sketch  showing  a  system  of 
drainage  by  which  the  area  of 
double-drained  land  is  reduced  to 
a  minimum. — U.  8.  Dept.  of  Ag- 
riculture. 


the  wetness  of  a  large  area. 
Drains  may  be  from  five  to  ten 
rods  apart,  depending  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  soil. 

In  muck  soil  drains  should  be 
from  three  to  four  feet  deep  and 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  feet 
apart.  Tile  placed  shallow  may  be  uncovered  by  the  shrinkage 
and  decay  of  such  soil. 

On  slopes  and  hillsides  that  are  uniformly  wet,  nearly  the 
same  arrangement  should  be  followed  as  on  flat  land.  It  is 
usually  best  to  run  the  drains  up  and  down  the  slope. 

Where  local  springy  places  and  wet  hollows  occur,  they  should 
be  reached  by  the  most  direct  course.  Sometimes  this  condition 
is  combined  mth  general  wetness,  and  the  two  sets  of  principles 


LAND  DEAINAGE  41 

then  need  to  be  united,  namely,  a  regular  system  coupled  mtli 
spurs  and  side  lines  to  reach  the  wetter  sjoots. 

Springy  lines  on  the  side  of  a  slope  or  at  its  foot  may  often 
be  intercepted  by  a  drain  across  the  slope  near  the  upper  side 
of  the  wet  area  and  cutting  fairly  deep  or  down  to  the  imper- 
vious layer  that  is  forcing  the  water  to  the  surface.  Sometimes 
two  or  more  such  intercepting  lines  are  necessary,  and  on  a 
springy  hillside  diagonal  drains  may  be  best. 

Muck  soil  areas,  esjiecially  small  pockets,  should  generally 
have  a  di-ain  along  the  border  at  the  foot  of  the  slope.  It  should 
be  added  that  for  muck  soils  the  first  drains  should  usually  be 
open  drains  until  the  muck  has  settled  and  the  nature  of  its 
subsoil  and  the  sources  of  water  have  been  determined. 

Pronounced  springs  should  be  tapped  by  the  most  direct  route 
and  if  they  spread  over  a  considerable  area  spur  drains  on  one 
or  both  sides  should  be  arranged  like  a  funnel  to  intercept  the 
flow.    These  spurs  should  cut  fairly  deep. 

Two  or  three  feet  is  a  good  average  depth  for  drains. 

Plant  roots  and  under  drains. — The  penetration  of  the  roots 
of  trees  or  other  jjlants  into  tile  drains  is  not  determined  by  the 
depth  of  the  drain  so  much  as  by  whether  water  flows  continually 
in  the  drain.  In  dry  periods  the  roots  are  likely  to  be  led 
toward  the  tile  where  it  carries  a  continual  flow  of  water.  Cer- 
tain types  of  trees,  such  as  the  elm,  poplar,  willow  and  even  the 
apple,  may  be  especially  troublesome  in  this  way.  Tight  joints 
formed  with  cement  in  the  neighborhood  of  such  plants  is  the 
only  available  protection.  Ordinarily,  plant  roots  do  not  much 
interfere  with  field  drains.  A\Tien  the  land  is  uniformly  drained, 
roots  do  not  enter  the  tile. 

Size  of  tile. —  The  size  of  drains  should  be  determined  by 
several  factors.  The  more  important  of  these  are  (a)  the  rain- 
fall, which  will  determine  the  amount  of  surplus  water  in  the 
soil,  (b)  the  slope  of  the  drain,  (c)  the  porosity  of  the  soil  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  rains  occur,  whether  as  ordinary  show- 
ers and  rain  periods  only  or  very  heavy  downpours,  (d)  the 
occurrence  of  springs  and  surface  flow  which  would  increase 
the  volume  of  water  in  the  soil  over  that  due  to  rainfall  on  the 
local  area,  (e)  the  texture  of  the  soil  in  relation  to  the  grade. 
Soils  having  silty  or  quicksand  (very  fine  sand)  properties 
require  the  larger  tile. 

The  capacity  of  a  tile  to  carry  water  depends  mainly  on  two 
things:  These  are  its  diameter  and  the  slope  at  which  it  is 
laid.    The  capacity  varies  with  the  square  of  the  diameter  rather 


42  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

than  with  the  diameter  directly.     An  eight-inch  tile  will  carry 
as  much  water  as  two  six-inch  tile  on  the  same  grade. 

Ordinarily,  for  large  areas  the  outlet  drain  is  of  such  size  as 
to  discharge  from  the  entire  area  of  land  tributary  to  the  system 
anj^vhere  from  one-quarter  to  as  much  as  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours,  depending  on  rainfall,  sur- 
face sloi^e  and  the  occurrence  of  springs.  The  following  table 
will  give  some  idea  of  the  area  of  land  that  may  be  drained  by 
different  sizes  of  tile  laid  on  different  grades: 


Number  of  Acres  from  Which  One  fourth  Ixch  of  Water  will  be  Eemoved  in 
Twenty-four  IIoxjrs  by  Outlet  Tile  Drains  of  Different  Diameters  and 
Different  Lengths  with  Different  Grades 


grade  in  inches  per  100  feet,  666 

1" 

2" 

3" 

4" 

5" 

Length  of  drain  in  feet 

Oiameter    of    tile    in 
inches    

1,000 

2,000 

1,000   2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

Acres  of  land  drained  by  different  sizes  of  tile 

5                            

19.1 
29.9 
44.1 
61.4 
S2 . 2 
106.7 

15.7 
24.8 
36.4 
50.7 
6S.1 
88.5 

22.1 
34.8 
31.1 
71.2 
95.3 
123.9 

19.4 
30.5 
44.8 
62.6 
83.8 
108  9 

25.1 
39.6 

58.0 
80.9 
108.4 
140.6 

22.7 
35.9 

52.8 
73.6 
89.6 
128.1 

32.0 
30.5 
74.0 
103.3 
138.1 
179.2 

30.3 

47.8 
70.1 
98.0 
131.3 
170.. ^3 

37.7 
59.4 
87.1 
121.4 
162.6 
211.1 

36.3 

6   

7  

57.3 

84,1 

8           

117.3 

9   

10                        . . . . 

157.1 
204.4 

For  small  field  laterals  on  grades  of  one  foot  or  more  per 
hundred  within  the  limits  of  length  of  one  thousand  feet,  three- 
inch  tile  may  be  used.  The  general  inclination  is  away  from  the 
smaller  sizes,  especially  those  below  three  inch.  For  more  flat 
grades  and  especially  in  fine  sandy,  silty  and  muck  soils  four 
and  five-inch  tile  should  be  the  minimum  size. 

For  the  submains  and  mains  the  tile  should  be  correspond- 
ingly larger  according  to  the  area  of  land  served.  For  these 
larger  systems  an  experienced  engineer  is  necessary  to  decide 
on  these  important  details. 

The  outlet. — The  outlet  should  be  the  first  thing  located  on 
a  drainage  system  and  the  last  part  safeguarded.  The  outlet 
tile  drain  should  be  properly  buttressed  to  prevent  washing 
and  caving,  and  the  end  protected  by  a  grating  or  gate  against 
the  entrance  of  small  animals. 


LAND  DRAINAGE 


43 


Junctions  of  tile. — The  junction  of  two  linos  of  tile  should 
be  in  the  form  of  a  Y  witji  the  lateral  jiointing  down  the  slope 
and  with  the  center  of  the  two  lines  of  tile  on  the  same  level, 
especially  for  the  smaller  sizes  of  mains. 

Filters  and  silt  wells. — Surface  intakes,  filter  basins  and  silt 
wells  are  details  that  are  sometimes  very  important.  At  best, 
surface  intakes  are  dangerous  and  in  all  cases  much  care  is 
required  in  the  use  of  screens  and  settling  basins  so  as  to  admit 
only  water  free  from  much  sediment  or  rubbish. 

A  rock  filter  to  admit  surface  water  should  have  fme  gravel, 
small  stones  or  straw  around  the  tile  to  hold  back  the  flow  of 
water    and    collect 
the  sediment. 

Silt  wells,  Avhich 
are  wells  in  the  line 
of  the  drain  and 
several  feet  deep- 
er, in  which  sedi- 
ment is  collected, 
require  a  large 
exercise  of  judg- 
ment in  their  loca- 
tion and  construc- 
tion. 

Drainage  tools 
and  machinery. — 
The  tools  for  con- 
structing the  ordi- 
nary farm  drain  especially  for  tile  may  be  divided  into  three 
groups : 

(1)  Where  the  Avork  is  done  by  hand  they  include  various 
types  of  narrow,  long-pointed  spades,  round-pointed,  long- 
handled  shovel,  grading  scoop,  pick  and  perhaps  a  tile  hook  for 
placing  tile  in  a  narrow  deej^  ditch.  No  more  earth  is  moved 
than  necessary  and  consequently  the  trench  is  not  more  than 
twelve  to  fifteen  inches  wide. 

(2)  The  second  group  of  tools  embrace:  Horsepower  exca- 
vating plows  that  range  from  a  blacksmith-made  tool  for  loosen- 
ing the  earth  to  big-wheeled  plows  drawn  by  six  or  more  horses, 
which  both  loosen  the  earth  and  more  or  less  completely  elevate 
it  out  of  the  ditch. 

(3)  The  third  group  of  tools  includes  the  engine  power  exca- 
vator ;  some  of  these  excavators  cut  the  trench  to  full  depth  and 


Fig.  is. — Ditching  plow  used  for  loosening  the  earth  in 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  A  number  of  patterns  of 
plows  of  this  type  are  on  the  market.  The  handles 
and  the  hitch  are  usually  ad  justal>]i',  in  order  to  suit 
the  depth  of  the  trench.  The  plow  is  drawn  by  two 
or  more  horses,  attached  to  a  long  evener  so  that 
tlioy  travel  on  either  side  of  the  trench. — ~Neio  York 
State  College  of-  Agriculture. 


44  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


accurately  grade  at  one  operation,  and  place  the  excavated  earth 
in  a  convenient  pile  at  one  side  of  the  trench,  where  it  may  be 
returned  readily  after  the  tile  are  placed  in  position. 

The  contract  system. — As  a  result  of  the  shortage  in  labor 
in  recent  years,  drainage  is  coming  more  and  more  to  a  con- 
tract basis,  under  which  arrangement  the  tools  in  groups  two 
and  three,  especially  the  latter,  together  with  skilled  operators, 
are  employed.  In  fact,  the  art  of  drainage  is  becoming  more 
and  more  an  expert  contracting  proposition,  and  rightly  so, 
as  we  believe  this  is  the  better  method  of  handling  large  drainage 
operations. 


Tools  for  ditching. 


1  and  2.    Ditching  spades  for  removing  the  major  part  of  the  earth  from 
the  ditch. 

3.  Grading  scoop  used  to  finish  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  and  the  grade. 

4.  Skeleton  spade  adapted  for  use  in  very  plastic  soil. 

5.  Shovel  for  removing  crumbs  and  loose  earth. 

6.  Hook  used  to  place  tile  in  deep,  narrow  trenches. 

7.  Pick  for  loosening  stone  and  hard  earth. 

—  'New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

Drainage  a  business  proposition. — Land  drainage  is  a  busi- 
ness proposition  just  like  a  roof  on  a  factory  or  a  drain  in  the 
cellar.  It  makes  possible  the  more  complete  use  of  the  poten- 
tial resources  of  the  farm  and  increases  the  product.  If  it  is 
wisely  installed,  it  is  a  first  class  business  investment  and  though 
it  is  costly,  like  every  other  type  of  construction,  it  should  be 
regarded  as  an  investment  and  not  merely  a  short  time  invest- 
ment, but  a  long  time  investment  that,  if  well  made,  will  con- 
tinue to  return  dividends  by  the  decade  and  the  century,  rather 


LAND  DKAINAGE  45 

than  for  only  a  few  years.  Experienced  farmers  very  gener- 
ally agree  that  drainage  of  wet  land  under  cultivation  is  one 
of  the  best  investments  that  can  be  made  and  the  lower  the  price 
of  crops  the  more  important  it  is  that  their  production  be  made 
as  economical  as  possible  by  that  imiDrovement  in  the  efficiency 
of  production  which  drainage  makes  j^ossible. 

Nearly  a  century  ago  John  Johnston,  he  of  Scottish  birth, 
laid  crockery  in  his  land  near  Geneva,  New  York,  while  his 
neighbors  scoffed.  Those  drains  are  still  operating  in  good 
form,  and  that  farm  is  producing  crops  far  above  the  average 
for  that  section  of  the  state.  The  missionary  message  from 
those  first  tile  laid  in  America  is  still  sounding  throug-li  the 
country  and  that  message  is  calling  more  and  more  farmers  to 
improve  the  drainage  of  their  land  as  a  business  proposition. 


CHAPTEE  III 

CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE,  AND  ROTATION  OF  SMALL  GRAINS 
By  R.  F.  Wiggans,  Ph.D.' 

CORN 

Corn  is  by  far  the  most  important  crop  in  the  United  States. 
Xot  only  the  acreage  and  production  but  also  the  value  of  this 
crop  is  far  greater  than  that  of  wheat,  oats,  barle}^,  and  rye 
combined. 

The  world's  corn  crop. —  The  world's  yearly  corn  crop 
averaged  3,86,7,247,000  bushels  for  the  period  1910-1917.  Three- 
fourths  of  this  is  produced  in  ITorth  America,  while  the  United 
States  produces  ninety-three  per  cent  of  the  North  American 
crop,  as  the  following  tables  shoAV,  the  data  of  which  is 
abstracted  from  the  United  States  Department  Year  Books. 

Percentage  of  World's  Corn  Produced  by  Continents   (1910-1914) 


North  America 

Europe 

South  America 

Africa 

Australia 


75.7 
16.3 
5.1 


Percentage  of  World's  Corn  Produced  by  Principal  Corn  Producing  Countries 

(1910-1914) 

United  States 

70.2 

Argentina   .          

6.3 

Mexico 

Roumania                                                ...          

4.4 
2  8 

Italy 

2.7 

Production  within  the  United  States. —  Seven  adjacent  states 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  corn 
belt.  Within  the  borders  of  these  states  is  produced  more  than 
one-half  of  the  corn  crop.  Regardless  of  the  fact  that  corn 
production  is  concentrated  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska, 
Indiana,  Kansas,  Texas,  and  Ohio,  every  state  in  the  United 


College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

46 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE  47 

States  produces  some  corn,  although  the  acreage  may  be  small. 
The  following  table  indicates  the  relative  imxiortance  of  corn  in 
the  different  divisions  of  the  United  States : 


DIVISION 

PERCENTAGE   OF   TOTAL 

VNITED    STATES 

PRODUCTION 

North  Atlantic   

3  3 

South  Atlantic    

8  2 

North  Central 

66  2 

South  Central      

21  9 

Far  West 

.4 

Origin  of  corn.— Corn  was  i^robably  first  brought  under 
cultivation  in  the  plateaus  of  Central  America.  From  there,  it 
probably  spreads  in  both  directions.  By  the  time  C()luml)ns  dis- 
covered America,  corn  was  under  common  cultivation  through- 
out both  continents.  From  America  it  soon  spreads  to  Europe 
where  it  has  become  of  considerable  importance,  as  shown  by 
the  foregoing  tables. 

So  far  as  the  biological  origin  is  concerned,  it  is  uncertain 
what  wild  plant  is  the  ancestor  of  corn.  There  are  two  wild 
plants,  gama  grass  and  teosinte,  which  are  closely  related  to 
corn,  and  there  is  good  evidence  that  corn  may  have  originated 
from  one  or  the  other  or  some  closely  related  form. 

Classification  of  corn. —  There  are  six  principal  types  of  corn 
in  cultivation,  most  of  which  have  a  large  number  of  varieties. 
These  types  are:  Pop  corn,  flint  corn,  dent  corn,  soft  corn, 
sweet  corn,  pod  corn. 

This  classification  is  based  very  largely  on  the  character  of 
the  kernel.  The  first  four  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  the  character  of  the  starch  within  the  kernel.  Pop  corn  has 
a  very  hard  and  flinty  kernel ;  flint  corn  is  nearly  as  hard  and 
flinty  but  much  larger  and  usually  contains  a  small  amount  of 
soft  starch  in  the  center;  dent  corn  is  not  more  than  one-half 
hard  and  flinty  while  the  rest  of  the  kernel  is  soft  starch,  the 
larger  part  of  which  occurs  at  the  top  of  the  kernel  which  when 
dry  causes  the  denting;  soft  corn  is  made  up  entirely  of  soft 
starch  with  a  kernel  shaped  very  much  like  that  of  flint;  the 
sweet  corns  differ  from  the  others  by  possessing  a  sugary 
instead  of  a  starchy  endosperm,  the  sugar  failing  to  change 
to  starch  as  it  does  in  the  other  types;  the  pod  corns  may  be 
any  of  the  above  types,  whose  indi\adual  kernels  are  surrounded 
bv  small  scales  or  pods. 


48  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

Relation  of  climate  to  the  production  of  corn. — Under  favor- 
able conditions  of  climate  and  soil,  corn  is  capable  of  very  high 
yields.  Yields  of  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty-five 
bushels  per  acre  have  been  recorded  where  heavy  applications 
of  manure  and  fertilizer  were  made  and  where  the  soil  and  cli- 
matic factors  w^ere  favorable.  Regardless  of  the  ability  of  corn 
to  yield,  the  average  for  the  United  States  is  about  twenty-six 
bushels  per  acre. 

The  best  climate  for  corn  production  is  one  with  abundant 
sunshine,  warm  days  and  nights,  and  plenty  of  rainfall.  Regions 
with  favorable  temperatures  and  rainfall  mth  frequent  cloudy 
days  often  cause  a  retarded  growth  and  reduced  yield ;  likewise, 
regions  with  warm  da^^s  and  favorable  sunshine  and  rainfall 
conditions  but  with  cool  nights  are  not  ideal  for  corn  produc- 
tion. Rainfall  is  also  a  limiting  factor  in  a  large  portion  of  the 
United  States,  especially  in  regions  of  less  than  twenty  inches. 
A  heavy  crop  of  corn  requires  an  enormous  amount  of  water. 
In  the  production  of  one  bushel  of  corn  from  eighteen  to  twenty 
tons  of  water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  the  plant  and  lost  by 
transpiration  from  the  leaves.  The  time  when  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  is  required  is  during  the  three  months  of  the 
growing  season,  June,  July  and  August.  If  other  conditions 
are  favorable,  a  rainfall  of  twelve  to  fourteen  inches  during  this 
period,  if  well  distributed,  will  insure  a  good  crop. 

Adaptation. —  Corn  originated  in  a  warm,  humid  climate  with 
a  long  growing  season,  but  has  become  adapted  to  regions  vary- 
ing widely  in  these  climatic  factors.  Corn  varieties  vary  in  the 
time  required  for  maturity  from  ninety  to  two  hundred  days; 
they  likewise  vary  in  their  ability  to  yield  in  dry  climates,  at 
high  elevations,  etc.  Although  corn  is  grown  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  in  this  wide  range  of  climatic  conditions,  the  greatest 
production  is  restricted  to  a  definite  area  with  a  mean  smnmer 
temperature  of  seventy  degrees  F.  to  eighty  degrees  F.,  a  mean 
night  temperature  of  about  fifty-eight  degrees,  a  season  of  one 
hundred  and  forty  days  or  more  without  frost  and  an  annual 
summer  rainfall  of  at  least  eight  inches  with  a  total  of  twenty- 
five  to  fifty  inches. 

Relation  of  soils  to  the  production  of  corn. —  The  best  corn 
soils  are  deep,  warm,  dark-colored  loams  or  silt  loams  with  a 
large  amount  of  organic  matter  and  available  nitrogen.  These 
soils  are  most  often  found  in  the  river  bottoms  of  the  Mississippi 
River  basin.  However,  corn  production  is  not  limited  to  such 
soils  or  else  there  would  be  only  a  small  acreage  in  the  United 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


49 


States.  As  in  the  case  of  climatic  factors  corn  has  become 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  varying  in  texture  from  very 
heavy  clays  to  light  sands,  and  in  fertility  from  soils  rich  in 
both  organic  matter  and  mineral  nutrients  to  very  poor  soils. 
Much  can  be  done  in  improving  poor  soil  conditions  by  proper 


jettan  in  dty-t-    Bui-  Vy  U. 

Fig.  20. — Regions  of  corn  production  according  to  types  growoi  (after  Montgomery), 


crop  rotations,  application  of  fertilizers  and  manures  and  proper 
drainage,  as  mil  be  explained  later. 

Varieties  to  grow. —  In  corn  as  in  all  other  cereals  there  is 
a  very  large  number  of  varieties  Avhich  cause  confusion.  Many 
varieties  are  known  under  different  names,  while  the  same  name 
is  often  applied  to  different  varieties.  This  confusion  makes  it 
very  uncertain  in  selecting  varieties  to  grow.  The  best  that 
can  be  done  at  present  to  aid  in  the  choice  of  varieties  is  to 
give  a  few  well  established  varieties  that  have  proven  satisfac- 
tory in  the  different  regions.  Many  local  conditions,  such  as 
elevation  and  locally  developed  varieties,  etc.,  enter  into  par- 
ticular cases.  The  follomng  varieties  are  given  for  the  regions 
as  suggested  by  the  accompanying  chart. 


50  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


GKAIK 

Flints 

Dents 

I'^ifrht -rowed  YelL  >\y 

Pride-of-the-Xorth 

Luce's  Favorite 

1 

Kincr  Philip 

Xorthwestern  Dent 

Early  strains  of  Learn- 

Hall's Gold  Nugget 

Cornell  No.  11 

ing 
Hall's  Gold  Nugget 
Hickory  King 

King  Philip 

Pride-of-the-Nor(h 

Luce's  Favorite 

2 

Smut  Nose 

:\Iinnesota  No.  13 

Early  strains  of  Learn- 

Eight-rowed Yellow 

Wisconsin  No.  7 

ing 

Early  Huron 

Hall's  Gold  Nugget 
Hickory  King 

Learning 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent 

3 

Silvermine 
Boone  County  White 
Johnson  Co.  White 
St.  Charles  White 

Same  as  for  grain 

Boone  County  White 

4 

Learning 

St.  Charles  White 

Hickory  King 

Same  as  for  grain 

Eureka 
jNIosby 

5 

Cocke's  Prolific 
Boone  County  White 
St.  Charles  White 

Same  as  for  grain 

Some  of  the  well-established  varieties  may  be  grouped  as 
follows,  according  to  maturity : 


r.ROTTP 

VARIETY 

DATS  TO 
MATURE 

Early  Flints 

New  York  State  Flint 
Dakota  Flint 
King  Philip 

Smut  Nose 
Longfellow 
Sanford  White 

90-110 

Early  Dents 

Early  Huron 
IMinnesota  No.  23 
White  Cap 
Bloody  Butcher 
Silver  King 

100-110 

CORX,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


51 


GROUP 

V.^RIETY 

DAYS  TO 
JIATURE 

Late  Flints 

Hall's  Gold  Nugget. 
Dibble's  Mammoth 

110-120 

Medium  Dents 

Northwestern  Dent 
Cornell  No.  11 
Pride-of-the-North 
White  Cap 
Minnesota  No.  13 
Wisconsin  No.  7 
Calico 
Bailey  Dent 

115-125 

Semi-Dents 

Luce's  Favorite 
Hickory  King 

120-125 
130-140 

Late  Dents 

Leaming 

Boone  C!ounty  White 

Johnson  County  White 

Sweepstakes 

St.  Charles  White 

Silvermine 

Reid's  Yellow  Dent 

120-140 

Very  late  Dents 

Eureka 

Wood's  Virginian 

]Mosby 

Cocke's  Prolific 

Virginia  Horsetooth 

130-150 

This  list  is  by  no  means  complete  but  will  serve  as  a  guide  in 
placing  other  varieties  which  may  be  of  local  importance. 

Improvement  of  corn. —  Each  corn  growing  region  of  the 
country  has  varieties  wliicli  are  particularly  adapted  to  that 
region.  For  example,  the  prolific  varieties  which  are  tall  and 
very  late,  with  more  than  one  ear  to  the  stalk  are  characteristic 
of  the  Gulf  States,  while  in  New  England  rather  short,  early, 
single  eared  varieties  are  grown.  These  differences  have  come 
about  very  largely  through  selection  by  farmers,  consciously 
or  unconsciously,  and  by  the  natural  adjustment  of  the  corn 
plant  to  its  environment.  Due  to  this  fact  a  farmer  in  choosing 
a  variety  should  always  investigate  the  local  sorts  first.^  After 
the  local  varieties  have  been  thoroughly  tested  there  are  three 
general  methods  open  for  improvement  in  corn:  (1)  introduc- 
tion of  varieties  from  outside  sources;  (2)  selection  within  local 
or  introduced  varieties;  (3)  crossing. 

Introduction  of  varieties  from  outside  sources  should  not  be 
generally  practiced  because  (1)  the  already  confused  condition 


52  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

existing  in  regard  to  varieties  would  be  increased;  (2)  varie- 
ties grown  under  certain  climatic  conditions  usually  require  con- 
siderable time  to  become  adapted  to  a  different  set  of  condi- 
tions ;  and  (3)  it  is  a  rather  expensive  operation.  If  this  method 
of  improvement  is  undertaken  by  the  farmer  the  following  pre- 
cautions should  be  observed:  (1)  bring  in  varieties  similar  to 
varieties  that  are  known  to  do  well  in  the  region;  (2)  bring  in 
varieties  that  have  been  gro^oi  under  similar  climatic  and  soil 
conditions;  (3)  begin  in  a  smaU  way,  not  trusting  the  entire 
crop  to  the  new  variety ;  and  (4)  compare  thoroughly  with  estab- 
lished varieties  before  passing  final  judgment. 

Selection  within  the  variety  is  the  method  whereby  some  of 
our  best  varieties  have  been  produced  and  a  large  amount  of 
improvement  within  the  existing  varieties  has  been  accom- 
plished. A  good  illustration  of  the  development  of  a  variety 
by  selection  is  Reid's  Yellow  Dent,  which  is  the  result  of  nearly 
fifty  years'  selection  for  an  ideal.  The  work  was  begun  by 
James  Reid  in  1846.  To  be  sure  it  is  not  desirable  or  worth 
while  for  every  grower  to  attempt  to  produce  a  new  variety, 
but  it  is  worth  while  for  a  large  number  to  attempt  improve- 
ment both  in  uniformity  and  in  yield  of  the  existing  varieties. 

The  lack  of  uniformity  in  varieties  is  readily  seen  either  in 
the  field  or  after  the  corn  is  harvested.  Just  as  much  varia- 
tion in  ability  to  yield  exists  between  individual  ears  as  exists 
between  any  readily  observable  character  such  as  the  shape  of 
kernels.  Herein  lies  a  great  opportunity  for  selection  and 
improvement. 

The  methods  used  in  selection  within  a  variety  are :  (1)  Crib 
selection;  (2)  field  selection;  (3)  pedigree  selection.  The  old 
and  time-honored  method  of  crib  selection,  where  the  best  look- 
ing ears  are  used  for  seed,  has  not  generally  produced  very 
favorable  results  because  the  ability  of  an  ear  to  produce  high 
yielding  plants  cannot  be  told  by  external  appearances.  This 
method  is,  however,  better  than  taking  crib  run.  Field  selec- 
tion is  a  marked  improvement  over  the  crib  selection  method. 
In  this  case  plants  are  selected  that  produce  the  desired  charac- 
ters (yield,  type  of  ear,  position  of  ear,  etc.)  under  average 
conditions.  Plants  which  have  a  distinct  advantage  by  being 
adjacent  to  missing  hills  or  stalks,  or  by  exceptionally  fertile 
spots,  etc.,  should  be  avoided.  It  is  best  to  select  these  plants 
while  still  growing,  but  in  case  this  cannot  be  done,  the  selec- 
tion may  take  place  when  the  corn  is  harvested.  This  corn  is 
then  well  cured  and  stored  for  planting.     This  method  can  be 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BAELEY,  RYE  53 

employed  with  good  results  Ly  iDractically  all  farmers  Avitliin 
their  own  fields. 

The  third  method,  known  as  pedigree  selection,  is  begun  by 
first  selecting  ears  in  the  field  as  above,  but  instead  of  shelling 
all  the  ears  together  they  are  planted  separately  the  follomng 
year  in  an  ear-to-row  test,  where  a  portion  of  the  grain  from 
each  ear  is  planted  in  a  separate  row,  harvested  and  weighed 
separately,  thus  ascertaining  the  high  yielding  rows.  The  rem- 
nants of  the  ears  from  which  the  seed  came  for  the  high  yield- 
ing rows  are  then  planted  the  second  year  in  a  separate  block 
for  increase.  '  The  seed  from  the  increase  block  is  used  for  the 
general  field  the  following  year.  This  process  may  be  con-' 
tinned  time  and  again  with  good  results.  The  difficulty  with 
this  method  is  that  it  requires  considerable  time  and  care,  more 
time  and  care  than  the  average  producer  cares  to  take.  It  is 
suited  only  to  those  that  are  especially  interested  and  are 
walling  to  make  the  sacrifice  of  time  and  take  the  necessary 
precautions. 

Seed  storage  and  testing. —  It  has  already  been  pointed  ont 
that  crib  selection  of  corn  is  not  advisable,  neither  is  the  crib 
a  good  place  for  storage  of  seed  corn.  After  careful  field  selec- 
tion seed  corn  must  be  properly  stored  to  insure  the  best  results 
in  germination.  Proper  treatment  consists  chiefly  of  quick  dry- 
ing of  both  cob  and  kernel,  which  have  a  moisture  content  of 
twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  at  harvest.  This  is  best  done  in 
a  warm  dry  room  A^dtli  a  large  amount  of  ventilation.  Artificial 
heat  may  be  employed  successfully  but  is  not  necessary; 
ventilation  is,  however,  very  necessary.  The  drying  should  he 
nearly  complete  before  freezing  weather,  since  freezing  injures 
the  vitality  of  the  corn  when  damp.  Well  dried  corn,  corn  with 
twelve  per  cent  or  less  water,  is  uninjured  even  by  hard  freezes. 
The  value  of  seed  testing  has  been  well  proven  the  past  few 
years,  especially  following  years  with  early  frost  and  conse- 
quently large  amounts  of  immature  seed.  Even  after  very 
favorable  corn  growing  seasons  there  is  always  a  considerable 
acreage  planted  wdth  poor  seed,  w%ich  results  in  a  partial  failure 
of  the  crop.  On  account  of  the  ease  with  which  the  test  can  be 
made,  it  should  never  be  neglected  comj^letely  w^ith  the  one 
excuse  of  not  having  time.  The  Iowa  Experiment  Station  has 
shown  that  it  takes  less  than  one  and  one-half  minutes  per  ear 
to  test  the  germination  of  corn  when  several  hundred  ears  are 
tested.  It  is  sometimes  permissible  if  one  is  fairly  sure  of  excel- 
lent seed  to  run  a  general  test  on  the  whole  lot  of  seed  corn  by 


54  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

germinating  two  or  three  kernels  from  eacli  of  a  hundred  ears 
selected  at  random.  If  they  test  very  high  a  further  test  is 
unnecessary,  but  if  they  test  ninety  per  cent  or  less  a  detailed 
test  is  very  necessary.  This  test  may  be  carried  on  by  (1)  the 
rag  doll  method,  (2)  by  germinating  box  of  sand  or  sawdust, 
or  (3)  any  convenient  method  whereby  a  sufficient  amount  of 
moisture  and  heat  may  be  applied  to  cause  good  germination. 

The  rag-doll  method  is  where  kernels  are  placed  on  a  strip 
of  cotton  flannel  or  any  otlier  absorbent  cloth  about  six  inches 
wide  and  thirty-six  inches  long  and  rolled  uj),  tied,  and  dipped 
into  Avater  about  body  temperature  for  eight  to  ten  hours,  then 
removed  and  placed  in  a  Avarm  moist  condition  to  germinate. 
'W^ien  the  seeds  have  sprouted  well  the  counts  can  be  made  and 
the  poor  ears  discarded.  This  method  has  not  always  proven 
satisfactory  because  conditions  have  not  been  kept  favorable 
for  germination. 

The  sawdust  or  sand  box  method  is  i^robably  as  good  as  any 
other.  In  this  case  a  box  three  inches  to  six  inches  deep  is  filled, 
preferably  with  sand,  marked  off  by  strings  placed  across  it  in 
both  directions  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches  apart.  The 
spaces  thus  formed  are  named  (C4,  D8,  etc.)  by  lettering  the 
spaces  on  one  side  of  the  box  and  numbering  them  on  the  other. 
Ears  are  then  numbered  to  correspond  mth  the  squares  and 
six  kernels  taken  from  various  parts  of  each  ear  and  placed 
in  the  sand  to  a  depth  of  one  inch,  well  watered  and  placed  in 
a  warm  room  for  germination.  The  sand  should  be  kept  moist 
until  the  test  is  complete.  By  this  method  the  strength  as  well 
as  the  percentage  of  germination  can  be  determined  and  thus 
both  weak  and  dead  ears  discarded.  Seed  corn  testing  should 
always  be  done  during  slack  time  in  w^inter. 

In  preparing  corn  for  planting  it  is  usually  advisable  to 
remove  the  small  kernels  at  the  tip  and  the  irregular  kernels 
at  the  butt  of  the  ears,  not  because  they  will  produce  less  but 
because  the  planter  will  drop  more  evenly  when  seed  of  uniform 
size  are  used,  consequently  a  more  uniform  stand  "will  result. 

Rotations  for  maintaining  yields  of  corn. — The  term  '*crop 
rotation"  is  usuall}^  understood  to-day  to  mean  a  succession 
of  crops  on  a  given  area,  including  grass,  grain  and  a  cultivated 
crop,  so  that  fertility  is  more  or  less  maintained  as  well  as  good 
tilth  of  the  soil.  In  the  beginning  of  agriculture  in  this  country, 
crop  rotation  was  unnecessary  because  of  an  over  supply  of 
virgin  soil.  But  as  this  surplus  was  taken  up  the  maintaining 
of  fertility  became  more  important.     It  was  soon  recognized 


COEN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


55 


that  continuous  cropping  of  a  soil  to  one  crop  depleted  tlie  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  This  is  very  definitely  shown  by  exi^erimental 
results  for  eighteen  years  from  the  Ohio  Station  as  given  in  the 
following  table : 


CT.or 

FIRST  laVE  YEARS 

LAST    FIVE    YEARS 

Corn 

26  bu. 
28  bu. 
10  bu. 

8bu. 

Oats 

15  bu. 

Wheat 

6  bu. 

Very  similar  results  have  been  secured  at  various  experiment 
stations.  Continuous  cropping  of  land  causes  a  depletion  of 
organic  matter,  nitrogen  and  mineral  elements,  and  finally  a 
poor  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  It  is  due  to  these  facts 
chiefly  that  rotations  have  been  developed. 

The  advantages  of  a  crop  rotation  are  listed  below: 

1.  Helps  maintain  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  content  of  the 

soil. 

2.  Keeps  soil  in  good  physical  condition. 

3.  IIelj)s  control  weed,  insect  and  fungus  pests. 

4.  Helps  to  make  available  more  mineral  matter. 

5.  Distributes  man,  horse  and  machine  labor  so  as  to  make 

it  more  efficient. 

6.  Lessens  risk  of  complete  failure. 

The  effect  of  crop  rotation  on  yield  of  corn  may  be  illustrated 
l)y  data  from  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


SYSTEM 

AVERAGE  YIELD  OF 
CORN       OVER       A 
PERIOD      OF      29 

YEARS 

ORKUXAL           PRO- 
DUCTIVENESS OF 
LAiN^D 

PERCENT- 
AGE 
.   DECREASE 

27  bu. 
46  bu. 
58  bu 

70  bu. 
70  bu. 
70  bu 

61    4 

Corn,  oats 

34  3 

Corn,  oats,  clover 

17  1 

Although  there  has  been  considerable  decrease  in  all  cases, 
the  decrease  has  been  very  much  greater  under  continuous  crop- 
ping than  Avhere  the  crops  are  rotated.  The  effect  of  a  legume 
in  the  rotation  is  also  very  apparent.  Likewise  the  data  show 
conclusively  that  rotations  alone  where  the  crops  are  all  removed 
will  not  maintain  fertility.  Fertility  can  be  maintained  where 
mineral  fertilizers  are  emplo^^ed  in  connection  mth  a  rotation 
including  legumes  and  green  manures. 


56  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Rotations  for  corn  production. —  In  general  the  essentials  to 
be  included  in  a  good  rotation  are:  (1)  A  cultivated  crop; 
(2)  one  or  more  legumes;  (3)  a  heavy  sod  forming,  grass; 
(4)  deep  rooted  crops;  (5)  opiDortunities  for  catch  crops  to  be 
used  as  green  manures.  With  these  things  in  mind  every  pro- 
ducer must  choose  a  rotation  that  best  answers  his  own  condi- 
tions.   Some  of  the  standard  rotations,  including  corn,  are : 


FIRST  TEAE 

SECOND  YEAR 

THIRD   YEAR 

FOURTn  YEAR 

(1)  Corn 

(2)  Corn 

(3)  Corn 

(4)  Corn 

(5)  Corn 

(6)  Corn 

(7)  Corn 

(8)  Corn 

Oats 

Oats 

Wheat 

Beans 

Oats 

Cow  peas,  oats 

Soy  beans 

Wheat 

Wheat 
Clover 
Clover 
^Vheat 
Cotton 
Clover 
Wheat 

Alfalfa  (several 
years) 

Clover 
Clover 
Clover 

Many  variations  of  these  rotations  might  be  given,  especially 
to  include  catch  crops  such  as  crimson  clover,  or  rye  and  vetch. 

Barnyard  manure. —  It  was  stated  under  crop  rotation  that 
fertility,  and  consequently  crop  yield,  cannot  be  maintained  by 
crop  rotations  alone,  but  by  the  addition  of  legumes,  green 
manures  or  barnyard  manure  and  mineral  fertilizers  fertility 
can  be  maintained  and  even  increased.  The  value  of  organic 
matter  cannot  be  over  emphasized  in  maintaining  fertility, 
neither  can  the  value  of  barnyard  manure  as  a  source  of  organic 
matter.  Results  from  various  experiment  stations,  based  on 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  years'  results,  show  an  average  value  of 
manure  based  on  the  increase  in  yield  of  corn  alone  in  the  rota- 
tion to  be  about  $2.50  per  ton,  and  it  must  be  understood  that 
the  total  value  is  by  no  means  exhausted  by  the  one  corn  crop. 
In  fact,  it  is  just  as  well,  and  probablj^  better,  to  apply  the 
manure  to  the  grass  and  have  the  residual  effect  for  the  corn. 
By  this  means  the  yield  of  grass  is  increased  and  a  heavier  sod 
produced  to  turn  under  for  the  corn  with  a  greater  total  return 
per  ton  of  manure  for  the  whole  rotation. 

Mineral  fertilizers. — Mineral  fertilizers  ordinarily  do  not  pay 
large  returns  when  used  alone  on  corn  as  only  a  part  of  it  is 
recovered  by  the  crop.  It  will  pay,  however,  when  used  in  con- 
nection with  a  rotation  where  manure  and  legumes  are  employed. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  best  to  apply  the  mineral  fertilizers 
to  the  grain  crops,  the  manure  to  the  sod  and  plow  a  heavy  sod 


CORX,  AVIIEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


57 


under  for  the  corn.  Of  the  three  mineral  elements  (nitrogen, 
phosjDhorus  and  potash)  often  deficient  in  the  soil,  phosphorus 
is  most  often  lacking.  Phosphorus  may  be  applied  at  times 
at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds 
per  acre  directly  to  the  corn  land  with  a  good  profit,  but  nitrogen 
and  potash  have  not  usually  given  a  profit.  Although  producing 
considerable  gains  in  yield,  the  gains  have  been  only  sufficient 
in  most  cases  to  i^ay  for  the  added  cost.  The  value  of  manure 
and  phosphate  to  corn  in  a  corn-wheat-clover  rotation  can  be 
shown  l)y  the  following  results  secured  at  the  Ohio  Experiment 
Station: 


TKEAT-ME>"T 

]>()T'NI),S  I'ER  ACRE 

AVERACE  YIELD  OP   CORX 
PER  ACRE 

1S97-1905 

1906-1913 

None.  ...              

S  tons 

8  tons] 

320  lbs.  j 

37 
57 

62 

33 

jManure 

G4 

Acid  Phosphate 

(3 

Limes. — The  value  of  lime  in  connection  with  certain  legumes 
has  become  well  established,  but  its  value  when  used  mtli  corn 
has  received  less  attention,  and  justly  so,  because  (1)  the  suc- 
cess of  the  crop  by  no  means  depends  on  an  application  of  lime, 
and  (2)  such  large  percentage  gains  have  not  been  secured  as 
with  other  crops.  However,  lime  has  generally  been  found  to 
increase  yield  of  corn,  whether  used  alone  or  in  connection  with 
manure  and  fertilizers,  sufficient  to  more  than  pay  for  the  appli- 
cation and  in  some  cases  the  cost  per  bushel  gain  has  been  as 
low  as  ten  cents.  AVhen  this  is  considered,  together  A^dth  the 
fact  that  lime  continues  to  have  a  beneficial  effect  on  soils  for 
several  years,  it  is  certainly  worth  ajiplying,  especially  on  liea\y 
soils  and  soils  deficient  in  lime. 


CULTURAL  METHODS 

Preparation  of  the  seed  bed. — The  object  of  seed  bed  prepar- 
ation in  any  case  is  to  produce  the  most  favorable  conditions 
for  plant  growth.  In  the  case  of  corn,  the  seed  bed  should  be 
well  plowed,  pulverized  and  freed  from  weeds.  The  freeing 
of  land  of  w^eeds  before  planting  is  very  essential  because  it 
cannot  only  be  done  more  cheaply  but  also  much  better  before 
the  corn  is  planted  than  at  any  later  date.     Plowing  in  gen- 


58  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

eral  is  necessary  in  order  to:  (1)  Increase  the  water-absorbing 
capacity  of  the  soil;  (2)  prevent  evaporation;  (3)  warm  up 
the  soil;  (4)  increase  circulation  of  air  in  the  soil;  (5)  increase 
the  available  plant  food  elements.  Plowing  may  be  done  either 
in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring  largely  according  to  conditions  on 
the  farm.  In  general,  however,  it  is  much  better  to  plow  sods 
or  land  receiving  a  heavy  application  of  manure  in  the  fall  in 
order  that  the  organic  matter  may  become  partially  decayed. 
On  the  other  hand,  very  heavy  soils  run  together  so  badly  dur- 
ing the  winter  that  spring  plowing  is  almost  necessary.  In  case 
land  is  plowed  in  the  spring  it  should  be  plowed  as  early  as 
possible  in  order  to  get  the  maximum  benefits. 

Deep  plowing  is  usually  advisable  for  corn.  Some  exceptions 
to  this  general  rule  occur:  (1)  If  land  has  been  jDlowed  shallow 
for  a  series  of  years  it  is  not  advisable  to  plow  deep  the  first 
year,  but  the  dejith  of  plowing  should  be  gradually  increased 
each  year  until  a  depth  of  eight  or  nine  inches  is  reached;  (2)  if 
the  land  is  to  be  plowed  late  in  the  spring,  it  should  not  be 
plowed  so  deep  that  the  seed  bed  cannot  be  firmed.  Ver}^  deep 
plowing  (fifteen  to  twenty  inches)  has  not  proved  generally 
beneficial. 

The  objects  of  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  immediately 
before  planting  are  (1)  to  pulverize  the  surface  soil;  (2)  to 
compact  the  seed  bed  if  spring  plowed  (fall  jolowed  land  becom- 
ing well  compacted  due  to  rains  and  successive  freezes  and 
thaws),  and  (3)  to  kill  all  weeds  that  have  started  development. 
It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  disk  fall  plowed  land  early  in  the 
season  and  again  at  time  of  planting  in  order  to  destroy  more 
weeds. 

Planting. —  Corn  is  planted  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one- 
half  inches  deep  according  to  type  of  soil.  It  may  be  planted 
(1)  on  the  surface,  (2)  in  shallow  furrows  made  either  with 
a  single  shovel  plow  or  with  furrow  opener  attachments  to  the 
corn  planter,  or  (3)  in  lister  furrows.  The  corn  may  be  planted 
either  by  hand,  with  a  drill,  or  with  a  two-row  planter.  Most 
of  the  corn  planted  on  the  surface  or  in  light  furrows  is  chocked, 
that  is,  rowed  both  ways,  while  the  listed  corn  is  usually  drilled. 
There  is  no  particular  advantage  in  yield  of  checked  over  drilled 
corn  as  long  as  all  other  conditions  are  similar.  The  check 
method,  however,  permits  of  plowing  both  ways  which  makes 
cultivation  much  easier.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  corn  is  to 
be  cut  with  a  corn  binder  or  used  for  silage  the  drilled  method 
has  the  advantage. 


CORN,  AVHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


59 


The  practic'e  of  listing  for  corn  is  not  to  be  reconiinended  in 
the  eastern  United  States  unless  on  very  light  soils.  It  is  of 
doubtful  advantage  even  in  the  corn  belt.  •  It  is,  however,  a 
quick  way  to  get  corn  in  the  ground  and  may  permit  of  a  little 
cleaner  cultivation  than  surface  drilling,  since  more  soil  can 
be  thrown  to  the  corn. 

The  rate  of  planting  of  corn  is  by  no  means  uniform,  as  it  is 
influenced  by  (1)  region,  (2)  variety,  (3)  purpose  for  which  it 
is  grown.  The  following  table  shows  the  usual  rates  of  plant- 
ing in  the  different  regions  of  the  United  States : 


Gulf   states  .  .  .  . 
Middle   states  .  . 

Northern  states 


DISTANCE  APART 
WHEN  CHECKED 


Rows 


4'-5' 
f3'  8"- 
|3'  6" 
i.r  6"- 
13'  0" 


Hills  in 
rows 


4' 

3'  S"- 
3'  6" 
3'  6"- 
3'  0" 


NUMBER  OF 
'LANTS  I'ER  HILL 


Grain 


2 

2-3 

3  -t 


Silage 


2   3 
3 

4-5 


DISTANCE  APART  WHE^T 
DRILLED 


Rows 


4'-5' 
f3'  8"-1 
3'  6" 
3'  6" 
3'  0" 


Plants  in 


Grain       Silage 


24" 
12 "-16" 

10"-12" 


lS"-24" 
12"-16" 

7''-12" 


The  time  of  planting  corn  should  largely  be  governed  by  the 
time  when  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  favorable  for 
the  growth  of  the  corn  plant.  This  time  varies  from  the 
southern  to  the  northern  states  as  follows : 


Time 

OF  Planting.  Corn* 

REGION 

BEGINNING 

GENERAL 

ENDING 

I'LANTING 
PERIOD 

(days) 

Gulf  states 

March   15 
April     15 
May      10 

April      15 
May         1 
May      20 

Mav       10 
May      25 
June        1 

55 

Central  states    (Va.  to  Kan.) 

Northern  states  (X.  Y.  to  Minn.)  . 

40 
20 

Cultivation  of  corn  is  a  universal  practice,  having  become 
so  because  it  is  necessary  for  successful  production.  There  are 
two  chief  reasons  for  cultivation:  (1)  To  conserve  moisture, 
and  (2)  to  destroy  Aveeds.  In  a  humid  region  (1)  is  of  little 
consequence,  but  in  time  of  drought  or  in  dry  regions  it  is 
important  during  the  first  period  of  growth  before  root  system 
has  become  well  established.     After  the  root  system  is  well 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.     Year  Book,  1910. 


60  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

developed  little  or  no  moisture  is  conserved  by  cultivation. 
Then  the  all  important  reason  for  cultivation  is  the  destruction 
of  weeds  Avhich  when  permitted  to  grow  cause  a  decrease  in 
both  grain  and  stover  by  (1)  using  available  plant  food 
nutrients,  (2)  using  water,  (3)  shading  the  corn  plants,  and 
(4)  increasing  the  carbon  dioxide  content  of  the  soil.  Any  tool 
which  will  destroy  weeds,  leave  the  surface  fairly  level  and  well 
pulverized,  not  injure  the  corn  plants,  and  stir  only  the  surface 
few  inches,  is  suitable  for  corn  cultivation. 

The  depth  of  cultivation  is  an  important  consideration  in  corn 
production.  As  a  rule  it  is  advisable  to  cultivate  just  as  shallow 
as  possible  in  order  to  destroy  the  weeds.  Deep  cultivation 
destroys  feeding  roots  which  come  very  close  to  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  In  heavy  soils  the  roots  are  as  close  as  one  inch  of  the 
surface  but  as  the  soils  become  lighter  the  roots  are  a  little 
deeper.  Cultivation  to  a  depth  of  four  inches  in  any  case  is  sure 
to  cause  root  injury.  The  nmnber  of  cultivations  depends  largely 
on  the  weeds  to  be  killed.  If  the  field  is  fairly  clean  late  cultiva- 
tions have  not  given  increased  yields.  Seldom  have  more  than 
four  cultivations  proven  beneficial  if  the  weeds  have  been  kept 
under  control. 

Harvesting  of  corn. —  Various  methods  are  employed  in  har- 
vesting corn : 

1.  Harvesting  of  ears  only. 

2.  Harvesting  of  entire  plant. 

3.  Stripping  leaves  while  green  and  harvesting  ears  when 
mature. 

4.  Topping  of  plant  above  the  ear  while  green  and  harvesting 
ears  when  mature. 

5.  ** Hogging  down,"  where  hogs  are  allowed  to  harvest  the 
corn. 

The  first-named  practice  is  the  one  employed  generally  in  the 
Corn  Belt  where  the  corn  is  grown  extensively  and  where  coarse 
fodder  is  not  needed  to  so  great  an  extent.  Usually  cattle,  sheep, 
or  horses  are  turned  into  the  stalk  fields  after  the  ears  are 
removed.  The  second  method  is  employed  in  all  dairy  regions 
where  the  entire  plant  is  harvested  either  for  fodder  or  for 
silage.  Here  the  corn  is  cut  by  hand,  by  means  of  sleds,  or  with 
corn  binders.  If  for  fodder,  the  corn  is  shocked  in  the  field  for 
curing  and  husked  and  fed  later.  If  for  silage,  the  corn  is  imme- 
diately run  through  a  silage  cutter  and  into  the  silo.  The  third 
method  has  been  generally  employed  in  the  south  but  is  going 
out  of  practice  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  labor.    The  fourth 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


61 


method  lias  been  employed  in  the  New  England  States  where 
fodder  was  desired  and  where  it  is  thonght  to  hasten  the  matu- 
rity of  the  ears.  The  fifth  method  is  coming  into  use  more  gen- 
erally with  the  increased  cost  of  harvesting  the  crop.  When 
practiced  hogs  should  be  turned  into  small  areas  at  a  time  until 
they  have  cleaned  it  up  then  into  another  similar  area,  etc. 
These  areas  can  easily  be  fenced  as  the  wire  can  be  tied  to  the 
stalks  at  frequent  intervals  thus  eliminating  the  need  for  posts. 
The  hogs  make  little  effort  to  escape  as  long  as  the  corn  lasts. 

The  time  to  harvest  corn  is  at  or  near  full  maturity  either 
when  the  ear  alone  or  when  both  ear  and  stover  are  desired 
because  dry  weight  increases  until  the  plant  is  fully  mature. 
This  is  well  shown  by  the  following  data  from  the  Michigan 
Experiment  Station.^ 


STAGE  OF 

GKKKX 
WEKiHT 
PEK  ACRE 
IX  TONS 

DRY 
WEIGHT 
PER  ACRE 
IN  LBS. 

PERCENTAGE 

PERCENTAGE 

MATURITY 

Leaves 

Stalks 

Ears 

MATTER 

Tasseled 

10.6 

12.7 
12.9 

11.5 

3,670 
5,.320 
7,110 
8,020 

36 
30 
21 

34 
25 
32 

29 

44 
46 

17.3 

Milk 

20.9 

Glazed  

27.5 

Mature.  . 

34.8 

From  a  study  of  the  table  it  is  readily  seen  why  it  is  advan- 
tageous to  harvest  near  the  time  of  maturity.  If  the  corn  is  to 
be  used  for  silage  other  considerations  come  in  wiiich  require 
a  little  earlier  harvest.  If  not  harvested  before  mature,  water 
must  be  added  to  silage  when  silo  is  filled;  leaves  and  tassels 
drop  off  easily  when  handling;  and  the  silage  does  not  pack  well. 
Early  harvest  is  also  necessary  in  many  cases  to  avoid  frost 
injury.  In  this  connection  it  might  be  said  that  in  regions  with 
short  growing  seasons  it  is  usually  advantageous  to  grow  a 
variety  for  silage  that  will  not  completely  mature  but  will  reach 
the  glazing  stage  in  most  seasons.  This  is  advisable  because 
more  food  nutrients  as  well  as  green  matter  can  be  secured  by 
gro^\dng  such  a  variety  to  the  glazed  stage  than  by  growing  an 
earlier  variety  to  maturity.  Of  course  this  practice  necessitates 
purchasing  seed  from  an  outside  source  each  year. 

The  loss  in  weight  of  ear  corn  in  storage  is  from  five  to  twenty- 
five  per  cent  during  the  first  year,  due  largely  to  loss  of  water. 
The  loss  in  dry  weight  of  either  fodder  or  silage  during  a  similar 
period  is  about  twenty  per  cent. 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  97. 


62  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Uses  of  corn  may  be  considered  under  three  heads:  (1)  For 
animal  food;  (2)  for  hmnan  food;  (3)  for  miscellaneous  pur- 
jDOses.  Animal  food  is  the  chief  use  of  corn,  as  ninety  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  crop  is  disposed  of  in  this  way  and  it  is  due  to  this 
use  that  both  the  animal  industry  and  the  great  production  of 
corn  have  developed  together  in  the  Middle  West.  Corn  is  used 
as  human  food  in  the  forms  of:  (1)  Roasting  ears;  (2)  corn 
meal  for  mush  and  bread;  (3)  pop  corn;  (4)  cereal  food;  (5) 
starch.  For  roasting  ears  and  for  canning,  sweet  corns  are 
best  suited.  The  miscellaneous  uses  are:  (1)  Production  of 
alcohol  from  the  grain;  (2)  production  of  paper,  mattresses,  and 
door  mats  from  the  stalks  and  husks. 

Common  disease  and  insect  pests  of  corn. —  Corn  is  less 
injured  by  disease  and  insect  pests  than  any  other  of  our  impor- 
tant crops.  It  is  especially  free  from  attacks  of  all  kinds  of 
fungi  and  bacteria  but  under  certain  conditions  considerable 
injury  may  be  done  by  corn  smut  and  certain  ear  rots.  The 
combined  injuries  from  diseases  seldom  reaches  one  per  cent. 
As  these  diseases  live  over  as  spores  on  the  infected  ears,  the 
best  control  method  is  to  gather  and  burn  all  diseased  stalks 
and  ears. 

The  most  injurious  insects  are:  (1)  CutAvorms;  (2)  grub- 
worms;  (3)  wire  worms;  (4)  corn-root  worms;  (5)  ear  worms; 
and  (6)  migratory  insects  (chinch  bug,  army  worm,  and  grass- 
hoppers). The  first  three  insects  are  more  abundant  after  sod 
and  may  be  controlled  to  a  large  extent  by  exposing  the  larvae 
to  freezing  by  late  fall  plowing.  The  corn-root  worm  is  bad  only 
where  corn  is  grown  on  the  same  field  several  years' in  succes- 
sion, and  can  therefore  be  controlled  by  crop  rotation.  The  corn 
ear  worm  damages  the  corn  ears  in  the  silk  stage  or  later,  not 
only  destroying  grain  but  making  easy  the  access  of  fungus 
diseases.  The  greatest  damage  is  probably  to  sweet  corn  in  the 
roasting-ear  stage,  producing  unmarketable  corn.  The  migra- 
tory insects  are  not  often  very  damaging  to  corn,  but  as  in  the 
case  of  other  crops,  much  damage  is  done  in  seasons  very  favor- 
able for  their  development.  The  control  methods  for  these 
insects  -wall  be  given  under  disease  and  insect  pests  of  small 
grains. 

WHEAT 

"Wheat,  although  fourth  in  importance  in  the  United  States, 
is  by  far  the  leading  crop  of  the  world.  It  is  the  most  important 
food  stuff  of  the  leading  peoples  of  the  world,  has  served  as  a 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLF.Y,  RYE 


63 


foundation  to  agricultural  progress,  and  is  now  the  foundation 
for  our  great  system  of  international  commerce. 

The  world's  wheat  crop. —  Tlie  world's  yearly  wheat  crop 
averaged  3,634,000,000  bushels  for  the  period  1907-1916, 
734,000,000  bushels,  or  20.2  per  cent  of  which  was  produced  by 
the  United  States  during  the  same  period. 

The  percentage  of  the  world's  crops  and  to  some  extent  the 
world's  distribution  of  wheat  is  given  in  the  following  tables : 

Percentage  of  World's  Crop  by  Continents,  1914-1916 


CONTINENT 

ATORACJE  PERCENTAGE 

30 

5 

J']ur()i)t' 

45 

15 

Africa 

2 

3 

Percentage  of  World's  Crop  of  the  Leading  Countries,  1914-1916 


country 

AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE 
OP 

world's  production 

AVERAGE  YIELD 
PER  ACRE 

22.4 
16.3 
8.S 
6.6 
4.9 
4.0 
.   3.5 

15    3 

Russia 

10.5 

India  

(  aiiada  .  . 

Austria-Hungary.  ^. 

Argentina. 

18.1 

29.1 

The  average  yield  per  acre  varies  from  ten  to  thirty  Imshcls. 
Russia  has  the  smallest  yield  per  acre  while  Germany  has  the 
highest.  The  United  States  has  an  average  yield  of  a  iittle  over 
fifteen  bushels  for  the  past  live  years. 

Within  the  United  States  the  five  leading  wheat-producing 
states  are  Kansas,  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and 
South  Dakota.  These  five  states  produce  forty  to  forty-five  per 
cent  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States  and  nearly 
ten  per  cent  of  the  world's  crop.  The  average  ^deld  per  acre 
within  these  states  is  ten  and  five-tenths  to  eighteen  and  five- 
tenths  bushels.  North  Dakota  has  the  lowest  average  yield  and 
Nebraska  has  the  highest. 

Origin  of  wheat. —  The  origin  of  wheat  is  unkno\\Ti,  since  its 
cultivation  precedes  all  history.     De  Candolle  states:     ''Very 


64  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

ancient  Egyptian  monuments,  older  than  the  invasion  of  the 
shepherds,  and  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  show  this  cultivation 
already  established."  Evidence  points  toward  Western  Asia 
as  the  probable  home  of  the  original  wild  plant  from  which 
wheat  has  been  developed. 

Range  of  wheat. —  Wheat  in  some  of  its  forms  is  now  grown 
throughout  the  world  in  all  kinds  of  environments,  having  a 
wider  range  than  any  other  cultivated  crop  except  barley.  It  is 
grown  in  practically  all  civilized  countries,  from  the  hottest  to 
the  coldest,  and  at  practically  all  elevations  where  civilized  man 
lives. 

Classification  of  wheat. — AMieat,  like  corn,  is  made  up  of  a 
large  number  of  varieties  which  can  be  divided  into  a  few  rather 
distinct  groups.  These  groups  cannot  be  based  on  texture  of 
kernel,  as  was  the  case  with  corn,  because  of  the  variation  in  this 
character  within  the  same  variety  when  grown  under  different 
conditions.  But  the  basis  of  the  grouping  is  found  in  the  varia- 
tion of  structural  characters  such  as  the  shape  of  head,  character 
of  the  glumes  or  chalf,  adherence  of  chaff  to  kernel,  etc.  The 
eight  groups  conmionly  used  in  separating  wheats  are: 

1.  Common  wheat. 

2.  Club  Avheat. 

3.  Poulard  wheat. 

4.  Durmn  wheat. 

5.  Polish  wheat. 

6.  Einkorn. 

7.  Spelt. 

8.  Enuner. 

The  first  group  includes  most  of  the  wheats  cultivated  in  this 
countr}^,  the  characters  of  which  are  well  known.  The  second 
group  is  made  up  largely  of  soft  wheats  gro^^^l  on  the  Pacific 
coast  but  is  distinguished  from  common  wheat  by  a  short  head 
which  is  dub-shaped  and  a  short  stiff  straw.  These  two  groups 
make  up  the  bread  wheats  of  the  world.  Groups  three,  four, 
and  five  are  distinguished  from  all  other  wheats  by  having  a 
pithy  stem  and  unusually  long  kernels.  Poulard  is  distinguished 
by  branched  heads ;  durum  by  long,  light  amber,  very  hard  ker- 
nels; and  Polish  by  very  large,  thin  chaff.  These  Avheats  are 
used  largely  for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni,  etc.  Einkorn, 
spelt  and  emmer  are  distinguished  from  other  wheats  by  retain- 
ing the  chaff  when  threshed.  Einkorn  has  only  one  grain  in  each 
segment  of  the  head  while  spelt  and  emmer  have  two  grains. 
Spelt  possesses  a  long,  very  lax  head,  while  emmer  has  a  rather 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


65 


short,  very  compact  head.  A  great  deal  of  the  emmer  now  on 
the  market  is  sold  under  the  name  spelt.  These  three  wheats  are 
of  little  importance  in  this  country  but  are  grown  in  some  poor, 
dry  soils,  and  are  used  for  stock  food. 

Regional  types  of  wheat. —  The  United  States  can  he  divided 
into  regions  according  to  the  types  of  wheat  grown.  Tlie  accom- 
panying diagram  map  illustrates  these  regions.  Some  of  the 
varieties  extensively  grown  in  each  of  these  regions  are  given 
below : 


SOFT    WiriTK    WINTKK 

SEMI-HARD    SI'RIN(; 

Dawson's  Golden  Chaff 

Gold  Coin 

Early  Red  Clawson 

Marquis 

Fife 

Preston 

RED    WINTER   WHEAT 

(Semi -hard) 

SEMI-HARD    SPRING 

Fulcaster 
Fultz 
Poole 
Red  Wave 
Nigger 
Red  Rock 

Mediterranean 

Lancaster 

DaAVson's  Golden  ChafT 

Farmer's  Friend 

Gypsy 

Rudy 

SOFT    RED    WHEAT 

SEMI-HARD    SPRlNc; 

Fultz 

Currell  Prolific 

Harvest  King 

Fulcaster 
Leap  Prolific 
Early  May 

' 

HARD    WINTER   WHEAT 

SEMI-HARD    SPRING 

Turkey 
Karkov 
]\Ialakov 

Kanred 
Fultz 
Harvest  Queen 

HARD    SPRING    WHEAT 

SEMI-HARD    SPRING 

Marquis 

Minnesota  No.  163 
Fife 
Preston 

Bluestems 

IRRIGATED   WHEATS 

SEMI-HARD    SPRING 

Gold  Coin 
Alberta  Red 
Club  Wheata 

66      THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


PACIFIO    COAST    SOFT    WHEAT. 


SEMI-IIAED    SPRING 


California  Club 

Gold  Coin 

Little  Club 

Bobs 

Early  Baart 


Sontjra 
Australian  White 


Fig.  21. — Wlieat  regions  of  the  United  States. 

These  varieties  are  not  always  the  best  varieties  to  grow  in 
these  regions  but  are  the  varieties  most  widely  grown  at  present, 
which  is  a  more  or  less  reliable  guide  as  to  what  is  best.  Like- 
wise the  regions  overlap  each  other  to  a  great  extent.  However, 
the  rather  distinct  regions  indicate  the  great  influence  of  envi- 
ronment on  the  type  of  wheat.  For  example,  the  soft  wheats 
are  grown  in  humid  regions  of  the  eastern  and  southern  states ; 
the  semihard  wheats  in  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  river 
with  less  rainfall  than  the  above  condition;  the  hard  wheats  in 
the  region  Avest  of  the  Missouri  river  to  the  semi-arid  region. 
Thus  the  hardness  of  wheat  is  generally  related  closely  to 
hmniditv  and  rainfall. 

Choice  of  variety  for  any  region  is  very  important  because 
next  to  growing  wheat  better  is  to  grow  better  Avheat.  The  best 
variety  is  difficult  and  in  some  cases  impossible  to  find,  but  if 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE  67 

tlie  desirable  qualities  of  a  good  variety  are  kept  in  mind,  the 
choice  of  a  variety  will  he  much  simplified.  The  desirable  quali- 
ties in  good  varieties  of  wheat  are:  (1)  High  yield,  (2)  stiff 
straw,  (3)  early  maturity,  (4)  rust  resistance,  (5)  high  gluten 
content. 

Choice  of  variety  for  any  region  is  very  important  because 
small  grain  production  are  quite  simple.  The  chief  principles 
involved  are:  (1)  Fertile  soil;  (2)  elimination  of  weeds;  (3) 
compact,  finely  pulverized  seed  bed;  (4)  conservation  of 
moisture  in  some  cases. 

The  kind  of  soil  best  suited  for  the  production  of  wheat  is 
proven  by  the  areas  of  long-continued  wheat  culture.  Such  areas 
are  mostly  on  silt  or  clay  loam  soils  which  are  not  as  high  in 
humus  as  the  best  corn  soils  but  which  have  an  abundance  of 
available  plant  food.  Very  little  wheat  is  grown  on  sandy  soils, 
because  the  yield  is  too  small  for  profit.  However,  soil  has  less 
influence  than  climate  on  wheat  production. 

Wheat  is  a  delicate  feeder  requiring  a  well-compacted  seed 
bed  which  permits  of  a  better  root  development,  less  drying  out, 
better  contact  Avith  sub-soil,  and  less  winter  killing.  In  prepar- 
ing such  a  seed  bed  early  plowing  (one  to  two  months  before 
seeding)  has  proven  considerably  better  than  plowing  just  before 
seeding.  LikeA\dse  deep  plowing  (six  to  seven  inches)  has 
proven  better  than  shallow  plowing  (three  to  four  inches)  where 
the  plowing  is  done  some  time  before  seeding.  Before  seeding 
the  land  should  be  freed  of  the  new  growth  of  weeds,  fairly  well- 
pulverized  on  the  surface  and  well-compacted  beneath. 

Rate  of  planting  wheat. — The  rate  of  planting  may  vary  from 
six  to  ten  pecks  per  acre  mthout  any  material  difference  in  the 
yield.  On  the  average  the  extra  bushel  of  seed  will  just  about 
increase  the  yield  one  bushel.  This  wide  range  in  the  rate  of 
planting  is  permitted  because  the  wheat  plant  stools  or  tillers 
abundantly  under  favorable  conditions.  Thus  when  seeded 
thinly,  the  number  of  tillers  per  plant  is  greater  than  when 
seeded  thickh^  resulting  in  about  the  same  num])er  of  heads  at 
harvest  time.  Rich  land  can  stand  a  thinner  rate  of  planting 
than  poor  land  because  tillering  is  more  abundant  under  the 
more  favorable  conditions  of  growth. 

Time  of  seeding  ivheat  depends  on  the  locality.  It  is  usually 
advisable  to  sow  six  weeks  to  two  months  before  the  soil  freezes 
in  order  to  permit  of  sufficient  growth  to  withstand  the  winter. 
This  general  rule  would  mean  the  middle  of  September  in  New 
York  and  later  the  farther  south  the  seeding  is  done.     Later 


68  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

seeding  is  sometimes  necessary  in  order  to  escape  the  Hes- 
sian fly. 

Method  of  seeding.— There  are  two  general  methods  of 
seeding  the  small  grains  on  prepared  seed  beds,  namely,  broad- 
cast and  drilling.  The  results  of  accurately  conducted  experi- 
ments all  show  an  advantage  of  tw^o  and  five-tenths  to  three  and 
five-tenths  bushels  per  acre  for  the  drill  method.  This  advan- 
tage is  due  to  (1)  more  uniform  stand  as  a  result  of  better  ger- 
mination since  all  seed  are  covered  to  the  proper  depth  and  more 
even  distribution;  (2)  less  winter  killing  because  the  crowns  are 
better  protected.  Drilling  has  the  added  advantage  of  giving 
clover  or  grass  when  seeded  with  the  grain  a  better  chance  for 
development. 

Mineral  fertilizers  for  wheat. —  The  fertilization  of  land  for 
wheat  is  becoming  more  and  more  important  as  the  natural 
fertility  is  reduced.  "Wheat  is  a  more  delicate  feeder  than  either 
oats  or  corn  and  thus  requires  a  supply  of  available  plant  food. 
Generally  phosphorus  is  the  element  most  needed  for  wheat 
and  good  returns  are  secured  by  applications  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  per  acre  of  acid  phos- 
phate. Likewise  potash  and  nitrogen  are  often  beneficial,  but 
where  good  rotations  are  followed,  including  legumes,  little 
nitrogen  is  necessary  for  wheat.  Where  a  complete  fertilizer  is 
used,  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  four  hundred  pounds  per  acre 
of  a  three-eight-five,  four-ten-five,  or  some  other  fertilizer  of 
similar  composition  will  give  profitable  returns.  Any  commer- 
cial fertilizer  for  wheat  is  applied  at  or  near  the  time  of  seeding 
unless  nitrate  of  soda  is  added.  In  this  case  it  should  be  broad- 
cast as  a  top  dressing  in  the  spring  after  growth  has  begun. 
Manure  had  better  be  added  to  grass  or  the  sod  before  plowing 
for  corn  than  as  a  fertilizer  for  wheat. 

Harvesting  wheat. —  Wheat  should  be  cut  when  mature  but 
not  long  before  as  the  grain  reaches  its  maximum  dry  weight 
when  well  ripened.  The  common  method  to-day  is  to  harvest 
with  a  grain  binder,  but  the  harvest  may  be  done  mth  a  self-rake 
reaper  or  with  a  cradle  and  bound  by  hand.  After  the  grain  is 
bound  it  is  advisable  to  shock  in  loose,  small  shocks  for  drying. 
It  may  then  be  stacked  in  the  field  or  stored  in  the  barn  for 
future  threshing  or  may  be  threshed  direct  from  the  field  if  the 
weather  is  very  favorable.  This  last  method,  hoM^ever,  will 
usually  result  in  considerable  loss  in  the  eastern  United  States. 

Market  grades  for  wheat. —  The  farmer  is  often  disappointed 
when  marketing  his  wheat  to  find  that  it  grades  quite  low,  which 


COEN,  A^TIEAT,  OATS,  BAKLEY,  RYE 


69 


means  a  corresponding  reduction  in  price.  Up  until  recently 
every  market  had  its  owti  grades  and  it  was  difficult  for  the 
producer  to  become  acquainted  ^^ith  them.  This  condition  is 
now  partly  eliminated  by  official  grades,  made  and  ado]oted  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of 
Markets.  The  official  grades  and  requirements  for  Soft  Red 
Winter  AMieat  are  as  follows: 


Mini- 
mum 

test 
w(.  per 
l.usliel 

JIAXIAIUM   LIMITS 

GRADE 
NO. 

:\rois- 

ture 

Damaged  kernels 

Foreign  material 

other  than 

dockage 

\Mieatsof 
other  classes 

Total 

Heat 
damage 

Total 

Matter 
other 
than 
cereal 
grains 

Total 

Red 
Winter 

Bnrnra 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Sample.  . 

Lbs. 
60 
58 
56 

54 
51 

'7r 

13.5 
14.0 
14.5 

15.5 
15.5 

% 
2 

4 

7 

10 

15 

0.1 
0.2 
0.5 
1.0 
3.0 

2 
3 
5 

7 

■■ 

0.5 

1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
5.0 

% 
5 
10 
10 
10 
10 

% 
2 
3 

10 

10 
10 

The  same  requirements  hold  true  for  conmion  Avhite,  white 
club,  and  hard  red  wheats.  Slight  variations  occur  in  the  grade 
and  requirements  of  hard  red  spring  durum. 

Uses  of  wheat. —  A\Tieat  is  used  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of 
flour  for  human  consumption,  either  as  bread  or  macaroni,  spa- 
ghetti, etc.  The  by-products  from  the  manufacture  of  flour, 
including  bran,  shorts  and  middlings,  which  amount  to  twenty- 
six  per  cent  of  the  whole,  are  used  for  animal  food.  Special  uses 
of  wheat  are  (1)  stock  food,  particularly  poultry;  (2)  hay,  espe- 
cially on  the  Pacific  Coast;  and  (3)  breakfast  foods,  such  as 
puffed  wheat.  The  straw  is  used  for  bedding  animals,  as 
roughage  in  winter,  and  for  the  making  of  paper. 

OATS 

The  oat  crop  stands  next  to  wheat  or  fifth  in  importance  in 
the  United  States,  but  as  a  world  crop,  wheat  is  first  and  oats 
fourth.  This  relationship,  together  with  the  rank  of  other  crops, 
is  shown  in  the  following  table  taken  from  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Books : 


70   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

AVERAGK  OF  Years,   1910-1914 


CROP 

world's 

production 

ix  millions  of 

BUSHELS 

UNITED  STATES 

PRODUCTION 

IN  MILLIONS  OF 

BUSHELS 

UNITED  STATES 

FARM  VALUE 

IN  MILLIONS  OF 

DOLLARS 

Potatoes  

5,369 

3,867 
3,735 
4,266 

1.880 
1,754 
1,453 

361 

2,732 

728 

1,158 

24 

38 

186 

66' 

14,259* 

213 

1,577 

Wheat 

Oats 

630 
443 

Rice        .                          

21 

Eve 

28 

Barley 

111 

Hay 

Cotton 

812 
764 

In  total  production  of  oats  the  United  States  is  the  leading 
conntry,  with  Russia  a  fairly  close  second,  followed  by  Germany, 
Canada,  France  and  Austria-Hungary  in  the  order  named. 
AVithin  the  United  States  the  important  production  is  limited  to 
eight  adjacent  states ;  Iowa,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  "Wis- 
consin, North  Dakota,  Ohio  and  Indiana,  in  the  order  named. 
This  order  varies  slightly  from  year  to  year. 

The  states  mentioned  above  produce  about  sixty  per  cent  of 
all  the  oats  produced  in  the  United  States.  The  average  yield 
per  acre  in  this  group  of  states  for  the  period  1906-1915  was 
thirty-eight  bushels,  while  the  average  for  the  United  States  for 
the  same  period  was  thirty-nine  bushels. 

Origin  of  oats. —  Like  w^heat,  the  history  of  oats  is  not  known 
definitely,  although  its  cultivation  does  not  date  as  far  back  as 
that  of  Avheat.  Oats  did  not  become  important  until  about  the 
Christian  Era.  Considerable  evidence  points  to  two  wild  forms 
which  ai-e  still  in  existence  as  the  ancestors  of  our  cultivated 
oats.  It  is  thought  that  Red  Texas,  with  various  selections  made 
from  it,  King,  and  Burt,  have  originated  from  one  form,  while 
from  the  other  the  remaining  varieties  of  cultivated  oats  have 
probably  been  derived. 

Range  of  oats. —  At  present  the  range  of  oats  production  is 
much  more  limited  than  that  of  wheat.  It  is  more  inclined  to  bo 
a  cool  climate  cereal  although  not  exceeding  wheat  in  its  north- 
ern range.  Within  the  United  States,  however,  oats  are  more 
widely  distributed  than  any  other  crop  with  the  exception  of 
potatoes.    This  is  due  to  the  high  esteem -in  which  it  is  held  as  a 

'Millions  of  tons. 
*  Five  hundred  bales. 


COKN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BAKLEY,  EYE  71 

horse  feed  and  to  its  adaptation  to  a  rotation  in  wliich  corn  is 
grown  and  not  to  its  profitableness  as  a  croji. 

Classification  of  oats. —  Beginning  with  the  above  division 
made  on  the  probable  origin,  oats  have  been  divided  into  gronps 
and  varieties  on  several  characters,  snch  as,  shape  of  head  (side 
or  spreading),  color  of  grain  (black,  yellow,  white,  red,  or  gray), 
awns,  character  of  early  growth  (spring  or  winter  habit),  etc. 
By  the  use  of  these  differences,  fifty-five  distinct  varieties  have 
been  recognized.  However,  as  in  other  crops,  there  is  a  very 
large  amount  of  named  varieties  (five  hundred  to  six  hundred). 
In  this  number  the  same  varieties  have  received  many  names, 
and  similarly,  different  varieties  have  received  the  same  name. 

Distribution  of  oats  in  United  States. —  In  general,  in  the 
northern  tier  of  states,  including  Pennsylvania,  New  Y^'ork  and 
all  of  New  England,  white  oats  have  grown  the  best.  Most  of 
the  varieties  belonging  to  this  group  are  medimn  to  late  in 
maturing  and  include  such  varieties  as  Banner,  Silvermine, 
Swedish  Select,  Clydesdale,  Lincoln,  and  AVelcome.  In  some 
seasons  mth  late  springs  or  when  seeding  is  delayed,  for  some 
reason  early  varieties,  such  as  Sixty-Day  or  Klerson,  have 
proven  generally  better  than  other  types.  Some  varieties 
belonging  to  this  group  lend  themselves  to  fall  sowing,  which  is 
necessary  in  some  regions.  BetAveen  these  two  regions  lies  the 
corn  belt  in  which  a  large  diversity  of  oats  is  grown,  but  in 
recent  years  the  earlier  varieties  which  mature  before  the  hot, 
dry  summer  sets  in,  have  been  growing  in  favor.  The  early  type 
is  about  the  only  one  that  is  grown  to  perfection  under  corn-belt 
conditions. 

Desirable  qualities  in  oats. —  In  choosing  a  variety  to  grow 
it  is  Avell  to  keep  in  mind  some  of  the  qualities  which  are  essen- 
tial to  good  oats,  the  most  important  of  which  may  be  listed  as 
follows :  1,  high  yield ;  2,  early  maturity ;  3,  stiff  straw ;  4,  resist- 
ance to  smut  and  rusts;  5,  white  color;  6,  small  percentage  of 
hull.  The  last-named  c[uality  of  a  good  variety  of  oats  has  been 
much  overlooked.  The  percentage  of  hull  varies  from  twenty  to 
forty,  and  when  analyzed  is  found  to  be  high  in  crude  fiber,  ash 
and  nondigestible  carbohydrates,  and  low  in  protein  and  fat, 
which  makes  it  of  little  value  as  a  feed  as  compared  with  the 
kernel.  On  the  other  hand,  a  low  percentage  of  hull  is  usually 
associated  with  a  high  weight  per  bushel.  For  these  reasons, 
with  other  things  equal,  a  thin-hulled  variety  should  be  grown. 

Cultural  methods. —  The  same  principles  hold  with  oats  as 
with  wheat  in  regard  to  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  only  oats 


72     THE  Hx\NDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

are  less  exacting  in  regard  to  soil  preparation  and  respond  less 
to  fertilizers  and  manure.  On  account  of  oats  being  a  coarse 
feeder,  its  soil  ada^^tations  are  wider  than  the  other  cereals. 
It  •\vill  do  well  on  any  fairly  productive  soil  so  long  as  the  cli- 
matic factors  are  favorble.  The  richest  soils  and  soils  high  in 
nitrogen  often  produce  too  rank  a  growth  in  oats,  causing  lodg- 
ing and  a  consequent  loss.  So  far  as  fertilizers  for  oats  are 
concerned,  ordinaril)^,  it  does  not  pay  as  high  returns  as  when 
applied  to  other  grains.  In  a  rotation  including  oats  and  wheat, 
the  fertilizer  better  be  added  to  the  wheat.  Fertilizers  high  in 
potash  (four-six-six)  have  given  very  good  results  in  the  north- 
eastern states  when  used  with  oats. 

Generally  less  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  has  been  practiced 
for  oats  than  for  the  other  cereals.  In  fact,  experiments  have 
shown  that  on  soil  in  good  ph^^sical  condition,  plowing  and  har- 
rowing have  given  little  increase  over  disking.  It  is,  however, 
better  to  plow  the  heavy  clay  soils  of  the  eastern  United  States, 
either  in  the  fall  or  very  early  spring,  than  to  try  to  prepare  the 
seed  bed  by  disking, 

Time  of  seeding  oats. —  Early  seeding  in  the  case  of  oats  is 
very  necessary.  This  is  important  because  the  crop  is  exacting 
in  its  climatic  requirements,  growing  to  perfection  only  in  a 
cool,  moist  condition.  This  is  best  fulfilled  before  the  dry 
weather  of  mid-summer.  Seeding  in  the  south  begins  in  Febru- 
ary and  is  not  completed  in  the  north  until  May,  but  ordinarily 
oats  should  be  seeded  as  soon  as  the  land  ,can  be  prepared. 
Slight  freezes  after  seeding  do  little  or  no  injury. 

Rate  of  seeding  oats. —  The  rate  of  seeding  oats  varies  from 
eight  to  ten  pecks,  but  ordinarily  there  is  little  or  no  increase 
above  ten  pecks.  The  heavier  rate  is  better  on  a  cold,  wet  soil 
or  on  a  soil  low  in  fertility  where  abundant  tillering  does  not 
occur,  while  eight  pecks  are  sufficient  on  a  warm,  well-drained, 
fertile  soil,  where  all  plants  tend  to  tiller. 

The  manner  and  depth  of  seeding  oats  are  same  as  for  wheat. 

Seed  treatment  for  snrnt. —  AAHiere  the  seed  oats  is  unknown 
or  where  smut  is  known  to  be  present,  treatment  of  the  seed  to 
kill  the  smut  spores  is  very  profitable.  This  can  easily  be  done 
by  dissolving  one  pound  of  commercial  formalin  in  forty  gallons 
of  water  and  sprinkling  this  solution  over  the  seed  oats  at  the 
rate  of  one  gallon  per  bushel.  The  seed  should  be  turned  as  the 
solution  is  added  so  that  all  seed  will  be  wet.  After  the  applica- 
tion, the  seed  should  be  piled  up  and  covered  with  bags  for 
several  hours,  then  spread  out  to  dry.    This  can  be  done  any 


CORX,  AVHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


73 


time  during  the  winter  or  spring,  the  only  precaution  is  to  get 
seed  well  dried  after  treatment.  In  any  case  the  seed  should  be 
well  dried  bei'ore  attempting  the  use  them  in  a  drill. 

Harvesting"  oats. —  Exactly  the  same  methods  are  employed 
here  as  with  wheat.  The  only  difference  is  that  oats  may,  and 
probably  better,  be  cut  before  wholly  mature,  since  there  is  little 
increase  in  the  kernel  during  the  last  stages  of  maturity,  and  if 
harvested  when  mature  there  is  an  actual  loss  due  to  shattering. 

Market  grades  of  oats. —  Oats  have  been  officially  designated 
as  white,  including  yellow,  red,  gray,  black,  mixed,  bleached  and 
clipped.  Each  of  these  groups  has  been  given  grades  according 
to  the  following  table  taken  from  the  ''Handbook  Official  Grain 
Standards  for  Oats"  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
cultm-e.  Bureau  of  Markets : 


(iRADE    Requikemexts    fok   White,    Red,    Gray,    Black,    ;Mixed, 
Clipped  Oats 


Bleached    axd 


(iHADE 

CONDITION   AND 

GEXERAL 

APPEARANCE 

If 
f-  _ 

a 

1 

-si 

>   tr 

•i 

1  i 

a 

-: 

£  -p. 

3-73 

IS 
o 

1 

Xot  to  exceed 

1 

Lbs. 
32 

20 

2C> 
2.3 

9r 
OS 

0.3 

00 

so 

0.1 
0.3 

1.0 
fi.O 

2 
2 

3 

2 

3 

5 
10 

^, 

3 

sweet,     and     of 
good  color  .... 

Shall  be  cool  and 
sweet,  and  may 
be       slightly 
stained 

Shall  be  cool  and 

2 
5 

4 

sweet,  and  may 
be     stained     or 
slightly   weath- 
ered   

Shall  be  cool,  and 
may  be  musty. 
Mcathercd        or 
badly  stained  .. 

10 
10 

Sample 
grade 

Shall  be  white,  red,  gray,  black,  mixed,  bleached  or  clipped  oats,  re.spec- 
tively,  which  do  not  come  within  the  requirements  of  any  of  the  grades 
from  Xo.  1  to  No.  4,  inclusive,  or  which  have  any  commercial  objection- 
able foreign  odor,  or  are  heating,  hot,  sour,  infested  with  live  weevils  or 
other  insects  injurious  to  stored  grain,  or  are  otherwise  of  distinctly  low 
quality. 

74  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

AVith  the  aid  of  tliese  standard  grades  the  farmer  should  be' 
able  to  determine  the  grade  of  his  oats  before  it  is  taken  to  the 
market. 

Uses  of  oats. —  Oats  find  their  diief  use  as  a  horse  feed,  for 
which  it  has  a  wide  reputation.  Many  horsemen  claim  that  no 
other  feed  is  equal  to  oats  in  maintaining  condition  and  high 
spirits.  A  very  large  precentage  of  oats  jiroduced  is  used  in 
this  way.  Oats  likewise  make  a  good  feed  for  sheep  and  cattle 
but  is  not  suited  for  hog  feed  on  account  of  the  hull.  Oats  like- 
wise have  an  extensive  use  as  a  human  food  particularly  as  rolled 
oats,  which,  when  properly  cooked,  make  one  of  the  cheapest 
and  best  food  products  of  the  cereals.  Long  cooking  increases 
both  the  palatability  and  the  digestibility.  Oats  have  been 
employed  as  a  human  food  for  many  centuries. 

Oat  straw  is  used  as  a  roughage  and  as  such  is  more  valuable 
than  the  straw  of  other  cereals.  When  not  used  in  this  way  it 
should  be  employed  as  bedding,  thus  being  returned  to  the  soil. 
Even  as  bedding  it  has  a  value  of  at  least  three  dollars  per  ton. 
Consequently,  it  should  never  be  burned,  as  is  sometimes 
practiced. 

Another  important  use  of  oats,  particularly  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  is  for  hay.  AVhen  so  used  it  is  cut  in  the  milk  stage  and 
handled  and  fed  as  any  other  grass  or  legume.  When  used  as 
ha}^  it  is  often  sown  with  field  peas  or  vetch.  Hay  made  in  this 
way  is  very  nutritious  and  is  readily  eaten  by  all  kinds  of  stock. 

BARLEY 

Barley,  although  important  as  a  grain  crop,  is  less  so  both  as 
a  world  crop  and  as  a  crop  in  the  United  States,  than  either  corn, 
wheat,  or  oats.  It  ranks  seventh  in  importance  among  the  crops 
of  both  the  world  and  the  United  States  as  seen  from  the  data 
given  on  page  70.  The  world's  production  averages  about  one 
and  a  half  billions  of  bushels,  of  which  Europe  produces  sixty 
per  cent,  Xorth  America  nineteen  per  cent,  and  Asia  seventeen 
per  cent,  the  other  continents  producing  comparatively  little. 
Among  the  countries,  Russia  is  by  far  the  leader,  producing 
about  three  hundred  and  eighty  millions.  The  United  States 
ranks  second  mth  about  two  hundred  millions,  with  India,  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary  and  Japan  following  in  the  order 
named.  Within  the  United  States,  the  leading  states  are  Cali- 
fornia, Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota  and  Wisconsin, 
as  based  on  the  average  production  during  the  years  1914-1918. 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE  75 

This  order  varies  to  some  extent  with  the  season.  The  five  states 
above  mentioned  jDrodnce  about  sixty  per  cent  of  the  barley  in 
the  United  States.  Very  little  barley  is  groAvn  in  the  corn  belt 
as  it  conies  in  direct  comjoetition  with  corn  both  as  a  stock  food 
and  for  the  market. 

Origin  of  barley. —  Barley,  like  wheat,  has  i;)layed  an  impor- 
tant role  as  a  food  since  the  beginning  of  history.  It  was  grown 
by  the  people  of  Western  Asia  nearly  two  thousand  years  before 
the  Christian  Era.  Sjiecimens  have  been  found  in  the  very  old 
Egyptian  tombs  and  some  of  the  oldest  coins  bear  figures  of 
barley  heads.  The  plant  from  which  barley  originated  is  not 
definitely  known  but  it  is  thought  by  many  investigators  that  a 
two-rowed  wild  form  found  near  the  Red  Sea  is  one,  if  not  the 
only,  ancestor  of  our  cultivated  barley. 

Range  of  barley. —  Barley  probably  has  the  greatest  range  of 
all  cultivated  crops.  It  is  grown  at  higher  altitudes  and  lati- 
tudes than  wheat  and  is  also  grown  within  eighteen  degrees  of 
the  equator.  Certain  varieties  Avill  mature  in  100  days  as  far 
north  as  Alaska,  while  others  in  different  localities  require  much 
longer  periods  of  growth.  There  are  ))oth  winter  and  spring 
varieties.  The  winter  varieties  are  less  hardy  than  winter 
wheat  ])ut  the  spring  varieties  are  mucli  more  hardy  than  spring 
Avheats. 

Classification  of  barleys. —  Due  to  the  wide  range  of  produc- 
tion of  barley  many  distinct  varieties  have  been  developed,  and 
as  in  other  grains,  there  is  much  confusion  in  the  naming  of 
varieties.  On  account  of  this  confusion  some  kind  of  a  classifi- 
cation is  necessary.  The  most  common  classification  is  based  on 
the  number  of  rows  of  fertile  spikelets  and  the  attitude  and 
width  of  head  as  follows : 

(Heads  lax  and  nnddiiif; 
(Chovalicr,  II anna,  Ilannchen,  etc.) 
TT  1  J  1     1  J 

Heads  erect  and  broad 
( Goldthorpe,  Primus,  etc.) 

(Heads  lax  and  noddinj^ 
(Manchuria-Oderl)rucher,  Featherslon,  Bav  Brewing,  etc.) 
Heads  erect  and  broad 
(Triumph,  Utah  Winter,  etc.) 

Within  the  four  types  there  are  many  variations  consisting  of 
forms  of  hulled  and  hulless;  awned  and  hooded;  white,  blue, 
purple  and  black,  etc.  It  is  only  the  lax  types,  however,  that 
have  become  important  in  the  United  States.  The  lax  two-rowed 
types,  including  Chevalier,  Hanna,  Hannchen,  etc.,  are  mostly 
grown  at  the  high  elevations  in  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota 


76  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

and  Montana.  They  are  also  very  important  in.  Canada.  The 
six-rowed  types,  chiefly  Manchuria-Oderbrucher,  are  grown  in 
the  area  east  of  North  Dakota  and  south  to  the  Ohio  river.  Bay 
Brewing  is  the  leading  barley  in  California,  while  in  the  South 
winter  varieties  are  employed. 

Desirable  qualities  in  barley. —  In  choosing  a  variety  to  grow 
the  foUomng  characteristics  of  a  good  barley  should  be  consid- 
ered: (1)  Yield;  (2)  stiff  straw;  (3)  early  maturity;  (4)  thin 
hull;  (5)  white  or  yellow  color;  (6)  uniformity  in  size  of  grain; 
(7)  hulled  barley;  (8)  mealy  kernel.  The  last  five  qualities  are 
more  important  if  the  product  is  to  be  marketed  as  these  charac- 
teristics are  very  important  in  malting. 

Cultural  methods. —  Barley  is  usually  grown  in  the  same 
relative  place  in  a  rotation  as  oats  but  requires  a  better  jorepared 
seed  bed.  Consequently  it  is  well  to  plow  in  the  fall  and  work 
the  ground  early  in  the  spring  until  a  firm  seed  bed  with  a  fine 
mellow  surface  is  secured.  If  the  plow^ing  is  delayed  until  spring 
it  should  be  done  as  early  as  possible  to  permit  of  settling.  As 
good  results  cannot  be  expected  with  barley  seeded  on  a  poorly 
prepared  seed  bed  as  with  oats.  Wien  barley  is  grown  as  a 
winter  crop  it  is  put  in  after  corn  or  cowpeas  and  the  soil  is 
simply  disked  well  and  seeded. 

Rate,  depth,  and  manner  of  seeding. —  The  rate  of  seeding 
barley  is  from  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre.  The  same  principles 
hold  in  regard  to  the  effect  of  climatic  and  soil  factors  on  rate 
of  seeding  as  hold  in  the  case  of  oats.  The  depth  and  manner  of 
seeding  are  the  same  as  for  wheat. 

Harvesting  barley. —  Barley  is  ready  to  be  cut  when  the 
kernels  are  in  the  hard  dough  stage  and  the  straw  and  head 
golden  yellow  in  color.  The  handling  after  cutting  is  similar 
to  wheat  and  oats.  An  extra  precaution  should  be  taken,  how- 
ever, to  prevent  bleaching  or  weathering  if  the  crop  is  to  be 
marketed.  Bleached,  discolored  grain  has  a  low  market  value, 
but  may  not  be  materially  damaged  for  feed. 

Uses  of  barley. —  Ba^-ley  is  used  chiefly  for  malting  purposes 
and  for  stock  food.  It  is  also  used  for  hmnan  consumption  and 
as  hay  in  the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  brewing 
interests  have  at  least  up  to  date  determined  very  largely  the 
price  of  barley  and  also  dictated  the  kind  of  barley  that  should 
be  grown.  They  have  been  able  to  do  this  because  such  a  large 
percentage  of  the  barley  produced  has  been  used  for  malting. 
The  characteristics  of  a  good  brewing  barley  have  already  been 
given  and  it  is  the  varieties  that  come  up  to  these  standards  that 


COKN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE  77 

are  being  grown  extensively  to-day,  namely  the  lax,  nodding 
yellow  or  white  bearded  varieties  of  the  two-  and  six-rowed 
forms. 

As  a  stock  food,  barley  has  about  the  same  feeding  value  as 
shelled  corn.  It  may  be  fed  whole  or  ground.  It  makes  a  better 
feed  for  hogs  than  for  other  stock.  Barley  straw  is  usually  not 
fed  on  account  of  the  beards  which  cause  injury  to  the  mouths 
of  stock.  AVhen  used  for  hay,  beardless  or  hooded  varieties  are 
usually  employed. 

The  by-products  of  brewing  also  have  considerable  feeding 
value.  Brewer's  grains  and  malt  sprouts  are  both  fed  to  stock 
and  are  a  rather  cheap  source  of  protein. 

RYE 

Rye  is  more  important  as  a  world 's  crop  than  barley,  ranking 
sixth  among  the  leading  crops  of  the  world.  However,  it  stands 
ninth  in  importance  as  a  crop  in  the  United  States,  as  seen  by 
the  data  given  on  page  70.  The  world's  production  of  rye  is 
from  one  and  five-tenths  to  one  and  nine-tenths  billions  of  bush- 
els per  year,  over  forty  per  cent  of  which  is  produced  in  Europe. 
North  America  stands  second  as  a  continent  in  i^roduction,  with 
about  three  per  cent  of  the  total.  Russia  easily  stands  first  as 
a  country,  with  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  world's  produc- 
tion; Germany  ranks  second,  with  about  twent3''-five  per  cent, 
followed  by  Austria-Hungary,  United  States,  France  and  Swe- 
den in  the  order  named.  In  both  Russia  and  Germany  more 
rye  is  produced  than  wheat.  The  United  States  has  had  an 
average  yield  of  fifteen  and  seven-tenths  bushels  per  acre  during 
the  period  1914-1918.  The  leading  states  in  order  of  their  pro- 
duction during  the  same  period  were:  North  Dakota,  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota,  Michigan,  South  Dakota  and  Pennsylvania. 
It  is  only  in  very  recent  years  that  the  Dakotas  have  become 
important  r^-e  producing  states. 

Origin  of  rye. — Rye  probably  came  into  cultivation  about  the 
same  time  as  oats,  near  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  Era. 
Evidence  seems  to  point  to  Northern  Europe  as  the  region  of 
earliest  culture.  The  progenitor  of  cultivated  rye  is  thought 
to  be  a  ^vild  perennial  form  now  found  growing  in  Northeastern 
Europe,  but  this  cannot  be  definitely  proven. 

Classification  of  rye. — In  direct  contrast  to  other  cereals,  rye 
is  represented  by  only  a  few  varieties  varying  somewhat  in 
color  of  grain  (white,  brownish  or  green) ;  in  shape  of  head. 


78  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

and  in  habit  of  early  growth  (spring  and  winter).  Only  the 
white  or  yellow  Avinter  ryes  are  grown  to  any  extent  in  the 
United  States. 

Cultural  methods. — Rye  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soil 
and  climate.  It  can  be  grown  on  lighter  soil  and  further  north 
than  wheat.  It  is  likewise  more  resistant  to  winter  injury.  It 
is  sometimes  known  as  the  grain  of  poverty,  because  it  can  be 
produced  on  soils  too  poor  and  in  too  severe  climate  for  other 
cereals.  This  ability  to  overcome  adverse  conditions  does  not 
mean  that  it  will  not  respond  with  a  larger  yield  to  more  favor- 
able soils  and  climate. 

It  will  pay  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  well  when  seeding  rye, 
although  a  fairly  good  crop  can  be  secured  by  drilling  in  corn 
w^ithout  preparation,  or  after  the  corn  is  cut  off  by  disking.  The 
rate  of  seeding  varies  from  five  to  ten  pecks  where  grain  is 
desired.  If  grown  for  straAV,  a  lesser  amount  is  needed,  and  if 
grown  for  green  manure  even  more  may  be  desirable. 

The  time  of  seeding  rye  is  somewhat  earlier  than  for  wheat, 
but  rye  is  not  exacting  in  this  regard.  It  may  be  seeded  early 
and  pastured  in  the  fall  to  prevent  jointing,  or  may  be  seeded 
very  late  so  that  it  barely  germinates  and  yet  yields  a  very  good 
crop.  Such  extremes  are  not  to  be  recommended,  however, 
when  yield  is  the  prime  object. 

Rye,  like  wheat,  Avill  resj)ond  favorably  to  fertilization. 

Harvesting  and  threshing  rye. — Rye  is  grown  both  for  the 
grain  and  for  the  straw.  AYhen  groAvn  for  the  grain  it  is  har- 
vested and  threshed  just  as  wheat,  but  when  the  straw  is  desired 
the  rye  is  cut  while  quite  green,  tied  in  small  bundles,  cured 
carefully  and  stored  inside  as  soon  as  possible  to  preserve  the 
color  of  the  straw.  After  having  been  thoroughly  cured  in 
this  way,  the  heads  only  are  threshed  and  the  straw  thrown 
aside.  The  straw  thus  secured  is  used  for  horse  collars, 
upholstering,  etc. 

Uses  of  rye. — Rye  grain  is  used  for  stock  food,  and  for  human 
consmnption.  The  straw  is  used  for  bedding  and  as  described 
above.  The  green  plants  are  used  for  pasture  and  for  green 
manure.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  rye  has  a  greater  diversity  of 
uses  than  most  of  the  cereals.  Some  of  these  uses  need  special 
mention.  Rye  bread  is  the  staff  of  life  in  some  European  coun- 
tries just  as  wheat  bread  is  in  the  United  States.  Rye  straw, 
when  of  good  quality,  sells  for  nearly  as  much  as  second-grade 
timothy  on  the  markets  in  the  big  cities.  Thus  the  straw  is 
sometimes  worth  as  much  as  the  grain.    Rye  makes  one  of  the 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE  79 

best  plants  for  green  manures.  It  grows  well  in  the  soils  most 
in  need  of  assistance  and  is  very  hardy.  As  a  pasture  it  can  be 
used  both  in  the  fall  and  in  the  spring.  It  can  also  be  used 
effectively  as  a  soiling  crop. 

Rotations  for  small  grains. — The  advantages  of  a  crop  rota- 
tion over  continuous  culture  have  already  been  given  under 
corn,  likewise  a  short  list  of  standard  rotations.  Therefore, 
they  need  not  be  repeated  here.  Barley  and  rye  do  not  appear 
in  the  rotations,  but  barley  may  be  substituted  for  oats  and  rye 
for  wheat  in  any  of  the  rotations  where  it  seems  to  be  desirable. 
Like^^dse  rye  may  be  used  in  practically  all  rotations  as  a  catch 
crop  to  be  plowed  under  for  a  green  manure. 

Small  grains  practically  always  follow  inter-tilled  crops 
regardless  of  the  rotation.  There  are  good  reasons  for  this 
practice,  as  follows: 

(1)  The  inter-tilled  crop  helps  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the 
small  grains. 

(2)  Small  grains  are  more  delicate  feeders  than  tilled  crops 
and  consequently  cannot  take  advantage  of  coarse  manures  and 
organic  matter. 

(3)  Small  grains  can  endure  a  more  exhausted  soil  than  tilled 
crops. 

(4)  Permits  of  equal  distribution  of  farm  labor. 

(5)  Land  is  kept  more  fully  occupied  with  crops. 

(G)   Small  grains  serve  as  nurse  crops  for  grass  and  clover. 

The  matter  of  the  place  in  the  rotation  of  any  one  crop  is 
not  so  important,  however,  as  the  matter  of  rotating. 

Rotation  of  crops  is  absolutely  essential  to  an  economic  system 
of  maintaining  soil  fertility. 

Improvement  of  small  grains. — The  same  methods  are  avail- 
able for  the  improvement  of  small  grains  as  for  corn,  namely : 
introduction,  selection  and  hybridization  or  crossing. 

Until  the  present  time,  introduction  in  the  case  of  small  grains 
has  been  far  the  most  important  in  the  Ignited  States.  This 
is  naturally  to  be  expected  since  the  small  grains  were  groAMi 
hundreds  and  in  some  cases  thousands  of  years  in  Europe 
under  very  diverse  conditions  before  America  was  discovered. 
During  that  period  many  varieties  with  special  adaptation  were 
developed,  many  of  which  have  been  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try and  have  immediately  come  into  prominence  in  regions 
similar  to  the  region  from  which  they  were  introduced.  Sev- 
eral agencies  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  introduc- 
tion, namely.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  seed 


80  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

associations,  seednien  and  individuals.  A  few  of  the  important 
introductions  are  as  follows: 

Wheat  —  Mediterranean,  Fife,  Turkey  Red,  Kubanka,  Daw- 
son's  Golden  Chaff. 

Oats  —  Swedish  Select,  Klerson,  Sixty-Day,  Clydesdale. 

Barley  —  Manchuria,  Hanna,  Swan  Neck,  Hannchen,  Smyrna 
Black. 

Rye  —  Abruzzes,  Ivanov,  Giant  Winter. 

It  is  the  second  method  of  improvement,  however,  in  which 
the  average  producer  can  and  should  take  part.  Improvement 
by  this  method  may  be  made  by  sorting,  by  mass  selection,  or  by 
pure  line  selection.  By  sorting  is  meant  the  selecting  out  of 
mixtures  in  a  given  lot  and  thus  purifying  the  variety,  or  by 
sorting  out  the  heavj^  from  the  light,  or  the  large  from  the  small 
seed.  Practically  all  commercial  varieties  now  grown  are  mixed 
badly  —  in  fact  it  is  the  excejDtion  to  see  a  clean  field.  For  this 
reason  effort  should  be  made  to  eliminate  the  undesirable  types. 

Light  versus  heavy  seed. —  Much  has  been  said  in  regard  to 
the  value  of  heavy  over  light  or  large  over  small  grain  for  seed 
purposes,  likewise  much  work  has  been  done  by  experiment  sta- 
tions, as  the  following  table  shows: 


GRAIN 

STATION 

LENGTH 
OF  EXPERI- 
MENT 

LARGEST 
HEAVIEST 

SMALLEST 
LIGHTEST 

CHECK 

Wheat 

Ohio 
Ohio 
Kan. 
Nebr. 
Kan. 
Xebr. 

8 
4 

4 

11 
0 
6 

30.82 
58.98 
29.13 
31.80 
30.90 
58.80 

30.20 
58.01 
27.60 
31.40 
27.50 
57.60 

31.06 

Oats 

58.43 

Wheat  .... 

29.00 

Wheat 

Oats 

31.90 
20.89 

Oats 

58.30 

These  data  show  very  conclusively  that  there  is  very  little 
gain  by  the  use  of  heavy  or  large  seed,  but  does  not  prove  that 
fanning  or  screening  to  eliminate  weeds,  dirt  and  chaff  is  not 
profitable.  The  only  advantage  of  large  and  heavy  seed  is  in 
seasons  unfavorable  for  early  growth,  at  which  time  more  food 
material  is  furnished  by  the  larger  seed.  A\^iere  seed  is  clean 
and  plump  it  is  doubtful  if  any  gain  is  made  by  separating  out 
the  heavy  and  large  seed  for  planting. 

Mass  and  pure  line  or  pedigree  selection  and  hybridization  as 
methods  of  improvement  require  more  time  and  labor  than  most 
producers  care  to  give.    Careful  and  detailed  tests  must  be  made. 


CORN,  WHEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


81 


all  seed  kept  separate,  etc.  For  these  reasons  they  are  not  dis- 
cussed in  detail  here. 

Pests  of  small  grains. — The  common  pests  of  small  grains  may 
be  divided  into  three  classes:  (1)  Weeds;  (2)  insects;  (3)  para- 
sitic fungi.  The  methods  most  generally  employed  to  combat 
these  pests  are:  (1)  Crop  rotation;  (2)  cultivation;  (3)  quick 
growing  crops;  (4)  seed  treatment;  (5)  pure  seed. 

Weeds  as  a  pest  are  always  present  and  without  exception 
cause  considerable  loss  by  using  up  the  available  plant  food  and 
water  as  well  as  by  shading  and  preventing  proper  root  develop- 
ment of  the  plants.  This  loss  in  the  grain  fields  of  Minnesota 
alone  is  estimated  at  $2,000,000  annually. 

Weeds  are  of  three  classes:  (1)  Annuals,  plants  maturing  in 
one  year;  (2)  Biennials,  plants  maturing  in  two  years;  (3)  Per- 
ennials, plants  that  grow  many  years,  but  seed  every  year. 
Examples  of  these  weeds  that  are  bad  in  grain  fields  together 
with  control  method  follow : 


CLASS 

WEED 

COXTKOr.    METHOD 

Annuals 

Wild  mustard 
Tumble  mustard 
Corn  crackle 
Chess  or  cheat 
Common  ragweed 
Wild  oats 
Fox  tail 

Clean  cultivation,  rotations,  pure  seed, 
and  pulling 

Wheat  never  turns  to  cheat,  but  the  per- 
centage of  cheat  may  continually  in- 
crease because  it  is  not  cleaned  out  of 
the  seed  wheat. 

Biennials 

Bull  thistle 
Evening  rriniiose 

Prevent  seeding  by  clean  culture  and 
rotation,  not  very  troublesome  in  grain 
fields. 

Perennials  .  .    .  .' .  . 

Canada  thistle 
]\Iorning   Glory 
Quack  grass 

Sununer  fallow,  deep  fall  plowing,  short 
rotations,  clean  cultivation,  pasturing 
with  sheep.  Any  way  in  which  to  starve 
out  the  luiderground  stems. 

Insect  pests  are  of  two  classes:  (1)  Those  that  attack  the 
growing  plant;  (2)  those  tliat  attack  the  threshed  grain.  The 
most  destructive  members  of  each  class  are  given  below  with  a 
brief  description  of  method  of  control : 


82   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


CLASS 

I.VSECT 

PLAXT 
ATTACKED 

CONTROL   METHODS 

Hessian  fly 

Wheat,  barley, 
rye 

( 1 )  Delaying  seeding  until  late 
or  until  the  second  brood 
of  adults  have  disappeared. 

(2)  Burning  stubble. 

(3)  Planting  a  drill  width  of 
wheat  early  for  eggs  to  be 
deposited  on  and  plowing 
under  later. 

(4)  Crop  rotation. 

Insects     attacking 
growing  plants 

Clincli  bug 

Corn,  all 
small  grains, 
grasses 

(1)  Elimination  of  dirty  fence 

rows  and  burning  over 
grass  lands  in  winter  to 
destroy  the  adults  which 
are  hibernating. 

(2)  During  periods  of  migra- 
tion from  one  field  to  an- 
other adults  may  be  de- 
stroyed by  plowing  and 
harrowing  finely.  Strip  10 
to  15  feet  wide  in  their 
path.  Heat  and  dust  over- 
come the  insects. 

Army  worm 

Corn,       small 
grains, 
grasses 

( 1 )  Plow  a  furrow  around  field 
to  be  protected  and  keep 
bottom  of  furrow  pulver- 
ized and  sides  steep. 
Worms  cannot  climb  verti- 
cally or  endure  dust. 

(a)  Poisoning  a  strip  around 
field  with  paris  green. 

Wheat  midge 

Wheat 

(1)  Crop  rotation;  (2)  deep 
fall  plowing;  (3)  burning 
of  chaff  and  screenings. 

V 

Granary 

weevil 

Corn,     wheat, 
barley,  oats 

( 1 )  By  heating  grain  to  118°  to 
120°  F.  for  a  period  of  8 
to  10  hours 

Insects    attacking 
stored  grain 

Saw-toothed 
grain  weevil 

Grains, 
Flour,      meal, 

breakfast 

foods 

( 2 )  By  fumigation  with  hydro- 
cyanic acid  gas  ( 1  oz.  po- 
tassium cyanide,  1  oz.  sul- 
furic acid  and  3  ozs.  water 
to  100  cu.  ft.  of  space). 
Dangerous. 

(3)  By  fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulphid  ( 1  lb.  to  35  bush- 
els of  grain).  Place  in 
shallow  pan  on  top  of 
grain  in  tight  bin  or  box. 
It  then  evaporates  and  set- 
tles. Also  very  dangerous. 
Any  one  of  these  methods 
are  eflfective  in  controlling 
insects  attacking  stored 
grain. 

Aiigoumois 
grain  moth 

All  cereals, 
buckwheat 

CORN,  A^^IEAT,  OATS,  BARLEY,  RYE 


83 


There  are  many  other  insects  of  minor  importance  not  men- 
tioned above. 

Parasitic  fungi  i^robably  do  less  damage  than  either  weeds  or 
insects,  but  the  annual  loss  from  fungi  alone  is  estimated  at 
about  $50,000,000.  The  fungi  attacking  small  grains  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups:  Rusts,  smuts,  and  miscellaneous 
fungi.  The  most  destructive  members  of  each  class  are  given 
in  the  following  table,  together  with  methods  of  control : 


CLASS 

FrxGi 

I'LAXTS 
ATTACKED 

CONTROL    METHOD 

Eusts 

Orange    leaf 
rust 

Wheat,  rye 

Rusts  cannot  be  controlled,  but 
the  damage  done  may  be  re- 
duced by   ( 1 )   using  rust  re- 

Black stem 
rust 

Wheat,  oats, 
rve  and 
l)ark'y 

sistant  varieties;  (2)  using 
early  maturing  varieties  to 
avoid  the  rusts;  (3)  seeding 
early  for  same  reason;  (4) 
avoiding    damp,    low    places. 

C'rowTi  rust 

Oats 

and  (5)  avoiding  over  pro- 
duction of  vegetative  growth. 

Euut  or  stink- 
ing smut 

Wheat 

These  four  smuts  are  carried 
from  one  crop  to  another  by 
means  of  spores  on  the  seed 
and  may  be  controlled  when 
all  smut  balls  have  been 
blown  out  by  (1)  formalin 
treatment  already  described 
under  oats;  (2)  hot  water 
treatment  used  in  Europe 
and  to  some  extent  in  U.  S., 

Loose  smut 

Oats 

Covered  smut 

Oats 

Smuts 

Covered  snuit 

Barley 

but  more  trouble  and  less 
effective  than  formalin  treat- 
ment. 

Loose  snuit 

Wheat 

No  control  method,  as  it  is  car- 
ried within  tlie  kernel  from 
one  crop  to  the  next.  May 
be  reduced  by  hot  water 
treatment  (wheat  10  minutes 
in  water,  129°  F.). 

(Barley  13  minutes  at  126°  F. 
after  being  soaked  4  to  5 
hours  in  cold  water.) 

Xaked  smut 

Barley 

Miscellanoous  fungi 

Ergot 

Rye.  harley, 
wheat 

Plant  clean  seed.  Does  not 
cause  nmch  loss  to  the  crop, 
but  is  dajigerous  when  fed  to 
stock. 

CHAPTER   IV 

FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS 
By  Frederic  W.  OLDE>rBxxRG,  B.S.^ 

*' Forage  crops"  includes  those  plants  that  are  grown  pri- 
marily to  be  fed  whole,  either  green  or  cured,  to  live  stock.  Not 
only  does  this  include  the  grasses,  millets,  clovers  and  alfalfa, 
but  soy  beans  and  cowjDeas,  corn  and  sorghum  and  any  other 
crop  when  used  in  this  wa}^ 

Soiling  is  the  term  used  when  the  croj)  is  cut  green  and  carried 
to  the  animal.  When  the  finer  stemmed  plants  are  cut  and  cured 
the  resulting  produce  is  called  hay.  Curing  does  not  mean 
merely  drying,  but  that  under  proper  conditions  a  slow  fermen- 
tation takes  place,  due  to  the  presence  of  enz^mies  in  the  plants, 
which  gives  hay  its  characteristic  aroma.  In  the  North  the  term 
* 'fodder"  is  used  in  connection  Avith  the  corn  plant  Avhen  cut 
and  fed  mtliout  removing  the  ears,  and  ' '  stover ' '  Avith  the  ears 
removed.  In  the  South  the  term  fodder  is  applied  to  the  dried 
tops  and  leaves  taken  from  the  standing  corn  before  it  is  fully 
matured.  Both  terms  are  also  used  in  connection  with  sorghum, 
kafir  corn  and  other  coarse-stemmed  plants. 

Distribution. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  * 'forage  crops"  include 
such  a  wide  variety  of  plants  adapted  to  various  soil  and  climatic 
conditions,  they  are  widely  distributed  over  the  United  States. 
According  to  the  census  of  1909,  these  crops  occupy  fully  one- 
half  of  the  cultivated  land.  However,  in  some  sections  of  the 
country  they  are  much  more  important  than  in  others.  In  New 
York  and  the  New  England  states  fully  eighty  to  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  improved  land  is  given  over  to  pasture,  hay  and  forage. 
This  is  due  to  the  excellent  markets  for  hay  furnished  by  the 
big  cities  and  by  the  dairy  interests.  In  the  West,  while  the 
percentage  of  improved  land  is  small,  more  than  forty  per  cent 
is  occupied  by  hay  and  forage.  In  the  Lake  States,  while  the 
acreage  is  large,  the  part  occupied  by  the  forage  crops  is  small. 
In  the  South  the  forage  crops  occupy  only  five  per  cent  of  the 
improved  land. 

Varieties. — Timothy  and  clover  mixed  is  the  principal  forage 
crop  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States  from  southern 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  northward,  and  east  of  the  Missouri 
river  (see  Fig.  1).     Corn  silage,  which  is  classified  as  coarse 

^  Maryland  Agricultural  College. 

84 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS 


85 


forage  by  the  Census  Bureau,  is  also  important  in  this  section, 
while  red  top  and  orchard  grass  are  common  in  parts  of  New 
England.  Cowpeas  and  corn  fodder  stand  first  in  the  South, 
but  in  the  drier  regions,  in  western  Texas,  Oldahoma  and  Kan- 
sas, sorghum  and  kafir  corn  take  this  place.  Farther  north,  in 
the  spring  wheat  region,  wild  and  prairie  grasses  rank  first. 
Alfalfa  is  the  principal  forage  crop  in  that  part  of  the  corn  belt 
west  of  the  Missouri  river  and  in  the  irrigated  regions  on  both 
sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  On  the  high  plateaus  of  these 
mountains  timothy  stands  first,  and  timothy  and  clover  in  the 
western  part  of  Washington  and  Oregon.  "Grains  cut  green" 
are  the  most  important  forage  crop  in  California  and  Oregon. 


Fig,  22. — Leading  varieties  of  hay. 


TEN  LEADING  STATES  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES        _( 

STATES 

MILLIONS  OF  ACRES 

J       3       .       S      6       7 

MILLIONS  OF  TONS 

ACRES  PER  FARM      1 

IOWA 

NEW  YORK 

NCBRASkA 

KANSAS 

MINNESOTA 

MISSOUpi 

SOUTH  DAKOTA 

ILLINOIS 

OHIO 

PENNSY1.VANIA 

■ 

: 

2 

;: 

2 

r 

- 

■ 

^ 

3 

I 

; 

* 

1 

" 

in 

T 

i; 

I 

^ 

= 

7 

"1 

- 

■^ 

''"yryr 

r°''°''''' 

■uTTTTil 

c 

C 

C 

r 

n 

c 

L. 

DL 

Li 

J- 

1_ 

LL 

L_ 

L_ 

L- 

L. 

L. 

L. 

LJ 

Fig.   23. — From  the  Geographif  of  the  World's  Arjriculture, 
U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Farm  Management, 


86  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Acreage,  Production  and  Valxje  Accokdino  to  the  Censxis  of  1909 


LEADING  VARIETIES 

ACRES 

PRODUCTION 

(tons) 

VALUE 

Timothy  and  clover  mixed        

19,542,382 
14,686,393 
2,443,263 
4,324,878 
17,186,522 
4,218,957 
4,034,432 
4.707,146 
1,117,769 

24,748,555 

17,985,420 
3,158,324 
5,367,292 

18,383,574 
4,166,772 
9,982,305 

11,859.881 
1,546.533 

$257,280,330 

Timothy 

188,082,895 

29,334,356 
61,686,131 

Grains  cut  preen                    

Wild  and  prairie  grasses              

91,026,169 
44,408,775 
46,753,262 

Miscellaneous  tame  grasses 

Alfalfa      .  .               

93,103,998 

Millet                                                    .... 

11,145,226 

Timothy. — In  the  United  States  timothy  is  the  most  imi^ortant 
grass  grown,  either  alone  or  with  clover.  According  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1909,  there  were  14,686,393  acres  grown  alone  and 
19,543,382  with  clover.  This  total  of  more  than  thirty-four 
million  acres  produced  nearly  fort^^-three  million  tons  of  hay. 
The  reasons  for  its  great  popularity  are  not  hard  to  find.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned,  (1)  the  cheapness  of  the  seed.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  timothy  is  prolific  in  seed  production  which 
is  easily  procured.  (2)  It  yields  well  and  makes  an  excellent 
grade  of  hay,  both  when  grown  alone  or  in  mixtures.  (3)  Wlien 
cut  late  it  still  makes  a  good  grade  of  hay.  (4)  It  is  the  best 
known  and  in  great  demand  by  the  city  trade. 

Much  the  greater  part  of  the  timothy  is  grown  in  the  region 
north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Missouri  (see  Fig.  2).  This 
broad  section  has  the  cool  humid  climate  most  favorable  to  its 
best  development.  To  the  Avestward  the  climate  becomes  too 
dry,  to  the  southward  it  becomes  too  hot  for  favorable  produc- 
tion. It  is  a  cool  climate  crop,  and  is  adapted  to  the  well-drained 
clay  and  loam  soils  of  this  region. 

Rotation. — The  most  common  practice  in  the  timothy-growing 
region  is  to  have  the  timothy  follow  the  small  grains  in  the  rota- 
tion. In  that  part  of  the  country  where  winter  wheat,  corn  and 
oats  are  grown,  the  rotation  consists  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  each 
one  year,  followed  by  timothy  or  timothy  and  clover  for  one  to 
three  years  or  more.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  timothy  region, 
however,  where  oats  do  not  thrive  well,  the  rotation  is  more 
often  corn,  wheat,  followed  by  timothy  or  timothy  and  clover. 
In  the  more  fertile  soils  of  the  corn  belt  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  give  not  more  than  one  year  to  timothy  or  to  timothy  and 
clover  in  a  three  or  four-year  rotation. 

In  these  rotations  the  corn  may  be  replaced  by  potatoes  or 


foragp:  and  soiling  crops  87 

some  other  cultivated  crop.  Rye,  soy  beans  or  cowpeas  may  take 
the  place  of  wheat  or  oats. 

Seeds. — Timothy  seed  has  such  a  characteristic  appearance 
that  adulteration  with  other  seeds  is  almost  impossible  without 
being  easily  detected.  "WTiile  the  legal  weight  is  forty-five 
pounds  to  the  bushel,  it  may  vary  from  forty-two  to  fifty  pounds. 
In  any  sample  it  will  be  found  that  a  iiart  of  the  seeds  retain 
their  hulls. 

Under  good  storage  conditions  seed  may  retain  its  vitality 
for  five  years,  after  w^hich  it  deteriorates  rapidly  under  ordinary 
conditions.  Seed  more  than  two  or  three  years  old  Avill  gen- 
erally be  found  to  have  deteriorated  considerably.  Good  seed 
should  be  about  ninety-nine  per  cent  pure  and  have  a  viability 
nearly  as  high,  and  Avill  ordinarily  germinate  in  five  or  six  days. 

Methods  of  seeding". — A  common  practice  is  to  sow  timothy 
with  the  wheat  or  rye  in  the  fall,  adding  clover  in  the  late  winter 
or  early  spring.  The  timothy  seed  is  sown  by  means  of  a  grass 
seeder  attachment  that  scatters  the  seed  either  in  front  or  behind 
the  drill  hoes,  generally  in  front,  which  insures  a  better  covering. 
Sowing  timothy  with  a  winter  grain  crop  has  a  nmnber  of  advan- 
tages. It  enables  the  timothy  to  form  well-developed  roots 
before  the  hot  summer  weather,  and  since  the  winter  grains  are 
cut  earlier  than  spring  grains  there  is  less  competition  for  water 
on  the  part  of  the  former.  With  both  winter  and  scoring  grains 
it  requires  but  one  preparation  of  seed  bed,  but  with  winter 
grains  the  seed  bed  generally  has  more  time  to  settle,  making  a 
better  seed  bed  for  grass  than  is  the  case  with  spring  grain. 

In  much  of  the  timothy-growing  region  no  winter  wheat  is 
grown,  and  the  timothy  is  commonly  sown  in  the  spring  with 
oats.  This  grain  shades  the  ground  more  and  is  credited  with 
using  more  water  from  the  soil  than  wheat  or  barley.  If,  hoAv- 
ever,  oats  is  used  as  nurse  crop,  not  more  than  two  to  two  and 
one-half  bushels  per  acre  should  be  sown.  The  grass  seedlings 
will  then  have  a  better  chance  to  survive. 

AVhen  sown  with  winter  grain  timothy  is  not  always  success- 
ful. This  is  often  the  case  in  the  southern  part  of  the  timothy- 
growing  region  where  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry.  The  more 
vigorous  grain  robs  the  soil  of  moisture,  and  after  harvest  the 
young  timothy  plants  are  destroyed  by  the  sudden  exposure  to 
the  sun.  On  fields  foul  with  weeds  the  timothy  ma^^  be  crowded 
out,  and  if  there  is  not  a  total  failure  there  is  at  least  a  decrease 
in  both  quality  and  quantity  of  the  hay. 

Where  failures  occur  when  sown  A^ath  winter  wheat  a  common 


88  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


practice  is  to  sow  the  timothy  alone  the  following  summer.  The 
plan  is  to  sow  the  grain  in  the  fall  as  usual,  but  without  the 
timothy,  and  as  soon  as  practicable  after  the  grain  is  harvested 
the  following  season  to  plow  down  the  stubble  and  prepare  a 
good  seed  bed.  If  so\\ti  in  August  a  good  growth  will  be  made 
that  season,  and  the  crop  may  be  cut  the  following  summer,  at 
the  same  time  as  if  it  had  been  sown  the  fall  before  with  the 
winter  grain.    Where  the  gromng  season  is  long  enough  as  it  is 


Fig.  24. —  Soil  in  good  tilth.  The  ]\Ieeker  harrow  is  a  very  efficient  pulverizing 
tool.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  small  disks  fitted  rigidly  to  a  straight  axle. 
— Indiana  Experiment  Station,  Fanners  Bulletin  202. 

in  the  latitude  of  Virginia,  clover  may  be  put  in  at  the  same 
time. 

While  summer  planting  makes  it  necessary  to  prepare  a  seed 
bed  especially  for  the  grass,  the  process  will  destroy  many 
weeds,  making  a  better  quality  of  hay,  and  the  increased  yield 
will  pay  for  the  extra  labor. 

Seed  bed. — A  well-prepared  seed  bed  is  important.  The  soil 
should  be  well  compacted,  firm  below,  with  a  well  mulched  sur- 
face above.  In  this  condition  the  seed  bed  will  retain  moisture 
well  and  give  a  good  start  to  the  seedlings.  If  the  plowing  has 
been  done  early  enough  to  allow  the  seed  bed  to  settle  thor- 


FOEAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  89 

oughly,  and  if  it  is  well  disked  and  harrowed,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  pulverize  the  surface  completely.  In  fact,  under  these  con- 
ditions the  ideal  seed  bed  is  one  covered  by  fine  lumps  one  or 
two  inches  in  diameter  that  have  been  brought  to  the  surface  b}^ 
the  harrow.  These  small  lumps  afford  winter  protection  to  the 
seedlings. 

Rate  of  seeding. — The  amount  of  seed  sown  per  acre  varies 
in  different  sections  and  with  different  farmers  from  eight  to 
thirty  pounds.  Fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  are  generally  soAvn. 
If  only  eight  pounds  per  acre  are  planted  there  are  nearly  two 
hundred  seeds  to  the  square  foot,  while  one  hundred  plants  to 
the  foot  Avould  be  a  good  stand.  If  mixed  ^^4th  red  clover  eight 
pounds  of  each  may  be  used,  and  if  alsike  is  included,  the  follow- 
ing :  Timothy,  eight  pounds ;  red  clover,  six  pounds ;  alsike,  two 
to  four  pounds. 

Fertilizers  and  lime. — As  ordinarily  grown  in  a  rotation,  tim- 
othy receives  only  the  residual  effects  of  the  fertilizers  applied 
to  the  grain  crops.  The  practice  of  applying  manure  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers  as  a  top  dressing  on  timothy  meadows  has 
shown  such  good  results  that  many  believe  that  the  best  results 
are  obtained  Avhen  used  in  this  way.  Manure  gives  the  greatest 
net  return  when  spread  evenly  over  the  whole  meadoAv  rather 
than  placing  all  of  it  on  part  of  the  field.  Nitrogen  in  some 
form  brings  the  greatest  increase.  The  results  with  phosphorus 
are  not  so  striking.  These  fertilizers  should  be  applied  in  a 
soluble  form  early  in  the  spring  just  after  the  first  growth  starts 
so  that  the  rains  can  carry  them  into  the  soil.  The  crojD  follow- 
ing the  timothy  shows  a  decided  improvement  not  only  from  the 
residual  effect  of  the  fertilizer  applied  but  to  the  increased 
amount  of  root  growth  plowed  under.  Whether  or  not  it  pays 
to  use  commercial  fertilizer,  especially  nitrogen,  depends  on  the 
relative  price  of  hay  and  fertilizer  and  to  the  increase  that  can 
be  obtained. 

A  good  top  dressing  for  meadows  consists  of  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per 
acre,  and  on  soils  that  need  potash  fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds 
of  sulphate  or  muriate  of  potash. 

"\Mien  soils  are  acid,  which  is  generally  the  case  in  the  older 
settled  regions,  the  ^plication  of  lime  will  generally  increase 
the  yield.  With  clover  and  timothy  mixtures  a  decided  increase 
is  generally  due  to  the  greater  growth  of  clover,  for  clover 
receives  the  greater  benefit  from  the  application  of  lime. 


90  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Time  to  cut  for  hay. — When  the  bloom  begins  to  fall  or  soon 
after  is  regarded  by  most  farmers  as  the  best  time  to  cut  for 
hay.  If  left  till  the  "dough'*  stage  there  Avill  be  some  increase 
in  weight,  but  some  loss  in  digestibility.  While  the  later  cuttings 
are  easier  to  cure,  there  is  also  some  loss  in  palatabilitj^  This 
is  shown  by  cattle;  when  fed  hay  alone  they  will  choose  the 
earlier  cut  hay.  However,  when  they  receive  other  feed  with 
the  hay,  they  show  no  preference,  indicating  that  the  difference 
in  palatability  must  be  slight. 

Yields. — "While  the  average  yield  in  the  United  States  is  only 
one  and  twenty-two  one  hundredths  tons  per  acre,  on  good  fields 
it  is  not  far  short  of  two  tons,  and  on  rich  well-fertilized  fields 
in  the  Northwest  the  maximum  yield  may  reach  four  and  one- 
half  tons  per  acre. 

Pasturing  timothy. —  Continuous  and  close  pasturing  may 
destroy  timothy.  Each  stalk  of  timothy  has  a  bulb  at  its  base 
that  is  easily  injured  by  the  trampling  of  farm  animals  or  by 
close  grazing.  In  any  case  a  decreased  yield  of  hay  may  be 
expected  after  pasturing  timothy  closely. 

It  is,  however,  a  good  practice  to  include  timothy  in  pasture 
mixtures,  for  on  account  of  its  quick  growth  it  will  furnish  a 
large  amount  of  palatable  grazing  when  conditions  for  its  growth 
are  favorable,  and  by  the  time  it  has  disappeared  the  slower- 
gromng  plants,  such  as  blue  grass  and  white  clover,  will  have 
taken  its  place. 

Timothy  and  clover  mixtures. — It  is  a  good  practice  to  sow 
clover  with  the  timothy.  Timothy,  like  other  true  grasses,  takes 
plant  food  from  the  soil  and  adds  nothing  except  the  organic 
matter  in  its  roots  and  stubble.  Clover  increases  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  by  adding  nitrogen  taken  from  the  air  by  the  bacteria 
that  live  in  the  tubercles  found  on  the  roots.  It  also  adds  more 
organic  matter  to  the  soil  than  timotlty,  and  is  of  greater  feed- 
ing value,  being  much  richer  in  protein.  If  a  good  stand  of 
clover  is  secured  the  yield  of  hay  the  first  year  will  be  more 
than  Avith  timothy  alone.  The  second  year  the  yield  is  mostly 
timothy,  due  to  the  fact  that  clover  is  a  biennial  and  timothy  a 
perennial  plant. 

In  the  winter  wheat  region,  timothy  is  usually  sown  in  the 
fall  with  the  wheat,  and  the  clover  is  added  in  the  spring.  'V\nien 
early  fall  planting  ^\ithout  a  nurse  crop  is  practiced  the  clover 
is  planted  with  the  timothy. 

Both  the  medium  red  clover  and  the  mammoth  red  clover  are 
grown  with  timothy.    Medium  red  clover  matures  earlier  than 


FOEAGE  AND  SOILING  CROrS  91 

the  nianmiotli  and  is  favored  where  early  cutting  is  practiced. 
Where,  on  account  of  farm  oi:)erations,  late  cutting  is  the  com- 
mon practice,  mammoth  clover  is  commonly  grown.  Where 
these  clovers  fail,  alsike  clover  often  succeeds,  and  should  be 
sown  with  the  timothy.  It  grows  on  soils  too  acid  or  too  wet 
for  the  red  clovers.  Alsike  clover  matures  even  earlier  than  the 
medium  red  clover  and  is  generally  overripe  by  the  time  timothy 
has  reached  its  best  cutting  condition.  It  greatly  adds  to  the 
feeding  value  of  the  hay,  however,  and,  like  other  clovers,  adds 
to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Life  history. — Timothy  is  a  perennial  plant,  propagated  from 
year  to  year  by  means  of  small  bulblets  formed  each  year  at  the 
base  of  the  stem  about  seeding  time.  The  following  spring  these 
bulblets  send  out  roots  and  stems  which  in  turn  j^roduce  bulblets 
for  the  next  crop.  Timothy  usually  reaches  its  maximum  growth 
the  second  or  third  year,  after  which  it  declines  unless  the  soil 
is  very  productive  or  the  sod  has  been  well  top  dressed  with 
manure,  fertilizer,  or  both. 

Redtop. — This  is  known  as  Herd's  grass  in  some  parts  of 
the  South  and  holds  an  important  place  as  a  forage  crop.  It  is 
a  perennial,  with  small  w^iry  stems,  usually  about  thirty  inches 
tall,  bearing  flat  leaves  about  one-quarter  inch  wide  and  four 
to  eight  inches  long.  It  has  an  open,  erect,  many-flowered  pan- 
nacle.  Vigorous  shallow  rootstalks,  two  to  six  inches  long,  are 
usually  present.  These  are  constantly  producing  new  stalks. 
AMien  growing  isolated,  tufts  are  formed,  but  in  pure  cultures 
a  fair  turf  is  produced. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptations. —  Redtop  has  a  wider  range 
than  timothy  both  for  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  It  reaches 
its  best  growth  in  a  cool  climate  on  moist  soils,  but  it  will  grow 
on  soils  that  are  either  too  wet  or  too  dry  for  timothy.  It  will 
withstand  more  acidity,  at  least  as  much  cold,  and  thrive  where 
it  is  too  hot  for  timothy.  It  has,  consequently,  a  wider  range 
than  any  other  cultivated  grass. 

Seed  and  seeding. — Redtop  seed  is  smaller  than  that  of  other 
commercial  grasses,  and  it  should  consequently  be  pure,  since 
foreign  seeds  can  easily  be  screened  out.  It  is  grown  chiefly 
in  southern  Illinois  and  is  sold  in  two  grades,  known  as  * 'chaffy'* 
and  "recleaned".  The  former  weighs  about  fourteen  pounds 
to  the  bushel,  while  the  recleaned  should  weigh  about  thirty-six 
pounds.  The  latter  should  be  used  as  it  is  cheaper  and  less  apt 
to  contain  noxious  weed  seeds.  It  may  be  seeded  about  the 
same  time  and  manner  as  timothy.     Ten  pounds  of  recleaned 


92  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FARMERS 

seed  per  acre  or  a  corresponding  amount  of  seed  in  the  chaff 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  good  stand  when  seeded  alone.  When 
sown  mth  other  grasses  four  or  five  pounds  are  commonly  used 
for  hay  mixtures,  while  two  or  three  pounds  per  acre  will  be 
found  sufficient  for  pasture  mixtures,  as  it  spreads  readily. 
Timothy,  redtop  and  alsike  clover  make  a  good  mixture. 

Value  and  uses. — It  is  the  most  important  hay  crop  in  por- 
tions of  the  New  England  States.  In  the  rest  of  the  timothy 
grooving  states  of  the  Northeast  it  is  second  only  to  blue  grass 
as  a  pasture  grass.  The  hay  is  somewhat  tough  and  is  not 
popular  on  the  market.  For  home  use,  however,  it  should  be 
included  in  hay  mixtures,  especially  if  the  soil  is  somewhat 
sour  or  wet,  for  it  will  increase  the  yield.  The  best  results  are 
obtained  if  cut  early.  After  the  blossoming  period  a  rapid 
deterioration  in  quality  takes  place.  In  yield  it  is  exceeded 
by  timothy  only.  It  is  the  only  tame  grass  that  will  do  well 
on  very  wet  soils,  and  it  is  useful  as  a  soil  binder  on  steep 
slopes. 

The  bent  grasses. —  Redtop  is  one  of  the  bent  grasses,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties.  Few  have  any  agricultural 
importance,  for  redtop  will  outyield  them  all.  If  the  purpose, 
however,  is  to  establish  a  good  lawn,  velvet  bent,  carpet  bent 
and  Rhode  Island  bent  are  valuable.  They  will  succeed  on  soils 
too  wet  or  too  sour  for  blue  grass.  Rhode  Island  bent  was 
formerly  quite  commonly  grown  in  New  York  and  in  the  New 
England  States  as  a  pasture  grass,  but  redtop  is  gradually  tak- 
ing its  place.  This  is  due  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  seed 
of  the  Rhode  Island  bent  on  the  market,  while  the  seed  of  red- 
top  is  plentiful. 

Orchard  grass. —  Orchard  is  a  long-lived  perennial  grass, 
growing  three  or  four  feet  tall,  forming  dense  tufts  that  may 
become  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  Its  leaf  blades  are  long 
and  flat  or  slightly  keeled  and  its  pannacle  is  so  characteristic 
that  it  cannot  be  mistaken  for  that  of  any  other  grass. 

Soil  and  climatic  adaptations. —  Orchard  grass  will  thrive  on 
a  wide  range  of  soils ;  doing  best,  however,  under  good  drainage 
conditions,  on  rich  loam  soils,  and  well  on  heavy  clays.  It  will 
not  succeed  on  poor  sandy  soils  or  on  muck,  but  will  grow  on 
soils  too  wet  or  too  sour  for  timothy  and  Avill  also  withstand 
drought  better.  It  is  grown  farther  south  than  timothy  because 
it  will  stand  more  heat ;  on  the  other  hand  it  is  not  so  common 
in  the  North  because  it  is  more  easily  injured  by  severe  winter 
weather.     One  of  its  important  characteristics  is  its  ability  to 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  93 

thrive  in  a  partial  shade,  making  it  especially  suitable  to  sow 
in  orchards  and  Avoodland  pastures. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages. — It  is  one  of  the  first  grasses 
to  start  in  the  spring,  making  the  earliest  pasturage.  As  it 
grows  older  it  becomes  unpalatable,  unless  kept  closely  cropped, 
and  is  avoided  by  the  livestock.  It  also  makes  a  good  late  fall 
pasturage.  In  meadows,  after  the  hay  is  cut,  a  considerable 
growth  starts  up,  making  fair  pasturage,  and  in  favorable  sea- 
sons a  second  cutting  of  hay  may  be  expected.  To  make  good 
hay  of  orchard  grass  it  must  be  cut  promptly  at  blossoming 
time,  for  after  this  period  it  rapidly  becomes  woody  and  unpala- 
table. It  is  slow  to  develop;  in  mixtures  taking  two  or  three 
years  to  reach  the  blooming  stage.  When  once  established,  it 
is  persistent  both  in  pastures  and  in  meadows,  but  grows  in 
tufts,  producing  an  uneven  sod  and  making  it  difficult  to  cut 
hay.  The  seed  costs  several  times  as  much  as  timothy,  and  in 
most  regions  the  yield  of  hay  is  smaller. 

Seed  and  seeding. —  The  seed  of  orchard  grass  is  grown  in 
Kentucky,  Ohio  and  Virginia.  An  average  yield  is  about  twelve 
bushels  per  acre.  The  seed  is  very  chaffy  and  on  the  average 
a  bushel  weighs  only  fourteen  pounds.  When  planting  for  hay, 
two  bushels  of  seed  are  used.  In  mixtures  for  permanent  pas- 
tures, five  pounds  are  used.  The  seed  is  too  light  and  chaffy  to 
feed  properly  through  a  drill,  consequently  the  sowing  is  usually 
done  by  hand  or  with  a  wheelbarrow  seeder  or  other  type  of 
seeder.  Fall  plantings  are  not  often  successful  because  orchard 
grass  is  easily  ^\anter-killed  unless  planted  very  early.  It  may 
be  sown  in  the  early  spring  with  a  nurse  crop  or  in  the  winter 
grain  as  early  as  conditions  allow.  For  pasture,  it  is  customary 
to  mix  other  grasses  with  orchard  grass  because  it  does  not 
make  a  good  sod.  Redtop  and  blue  grass  are  often  used.  For 
meadows,  clover  is  commonly  mixed  with  the  orchard  grass. 

Kentucky  blue  grass. — This  grass,  often  called  June  grass, 
or  simply  blue  grass,  is  a  narrow-leaved,  fine-stemmed  peren- 
nial, gromng  from  a  few  inches  to  two  feet  tall.  It  spreads 
slowly  by  means  of  fine  underground  stems  and  forms  an  excel- 
lent sod. 

Value  and  adaptations. —  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  the  most 
important  pasture  grass,  and  is  second  to  timothy  in  total  value. 
It  forms  a  permanent  sod  that,  under  favorable  conditions,  does 
not  deteriorate  with  age.  Not  only  is  it  one  of  the  earliest 
grasses  to  start  in  the  spring,  but  it  gives  late  fall  pasturage. 
However,   during  hot,   dry   summer  weather   it  makes   scant 


94  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


growth,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  shallow  rooted.  Unlike  most 
of  the  other  tame  grasses,  its  dry  herbage  is  readily  eaten  by 
the  livestock;  and  it  starts  new  growth  promptly  after  rains. 

It  grows  over,  a  wide 
range  of  territory,  since 
it  can  survive  both  se- 
vere winters  and  hot 
summers,  and  grow  on 
a  wide  variety  of  soils. 
It  also  succeeds  well  un- 
der irrigation,  but  is  at 
its  best  in  the  timothy 
and  clover  region  on  the 
soils  derived  from  lime- 
stone. 

Though  seldom  used 
for  that  purpose  on  ac- 
count of  the  small  yield, 
blue  grass  makes  an  ex- 
cellent hay,  containing 
fully  ten  per  cent  pro- 
tein. After  passing  the 
blossoming  stage  it  rap- 
idly deteriorates,  and  if 
good  hay  is  to  be  made 
it  must  be  cut  promptl}^ 
since  it  soon  becomes 
wiry  and  unpalatable. 

Seeds  and  seeding^. — 
Blue  grass  does  not  pro- 
duce seed  abundantly, 
which  is  generally  ex- 
pensive. As  a  conse- 
quence, in  Kentucky, 
Missouri  and  Iowa, 
where  most  of  the  seed 
is  raised,  while  some 
hand  stripping  is  done, 
it  is  largely  harvested  by  machinery  that  removes  the  heads, 
which  are  then  cured  and  threshed.  If  heating  occurs  during 
the  curing  process  the  vitality  of  the  seed  is  lowered.  Indeed, 
much  of  the  commercial  seed  has  a  vitality  of  only  fifty  per  cent 
and  it  may  be  much  lower.    Much  chaff  is  usually  present  in  the 


Fig.    25. —  Kentucky 


blue    grass.- 
lin  J,02. 


-Fanners   Bulle- 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  95 

seed,  which  often  weighs  only  ten  to  twenty  ponnds  j^er  bushel. 
Seed  tlioroughly  recleaned  will  weigh  ten  joounds  more. 

Because  it  varies  so  much  in  weight  and  viability,  it  is  hard 
to  determine  the  best  amounts  of  seed  per  acre  to  sow.  All  the 
way  from  twenty  to  forty  pounds  per  acre  are  recommended, 
when  seeded  alone  for  hay  or  pasture,  and  fifty  pounds  or  more 
when  seeded  for  lawn  jDurposes.  It  is  always  wise  to  test  for 
germination. 

However,  on  account  of  the  slowness  with  which  it  takes  pos- 
session, taking  two  years  or  more  to  form  a  good  sod,  it  is 
nearly  always  sown  with  other  grasses.  For  lawn  purposes 
it  is  wise  to  make  the  mixture  one-third  redtop  and  two-thirds 
blue  grass,  with  two  or  three  pounds  of  white  clover  per  acre 
added.  For  ha^^  and  pasture,  a  mixture  of  blue  grass,  timothj^, 
redtop  and  orchard  grass  Avitli  red  and  alsike  clovers  added, 
and  sown  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  recommended  for  clover 
and  timothy  mixtures,  will  usually  be  found  satisfactory.  Only 
a  few  pounds  of  blue  grass  seed  will  suffice  in  this  mixture.  The 
other  grasses  will  develop  good  pastureage  early  and  wall  be 
driven  out  gradually  by  the  blue  grass,  which  finally  will  take 
complete  possession.  The  fact  is  that  a  large  part  of  the  per- 
manent blue  grass  pastures  w^ere  not  seeded  at  all.  They  were 
originally  covered  with  native  grasses,  which  have  been  gradu- 
ally driven  out  by  the  natural  spreading  of  the  blue  grass. 

Canada  blue  grass. —  This  is  another  of  the  blue  grasses  that 
is  of  considerable  importance.  It  differs  from  Kentucky  blue 
grass  in  being  somewhat  smaller,  with  a  more  compact  seed 
head  and  having  a  stem  that  is  oval  and  with  a  l)end  at  each 
joint,  w^hile  that  of  the  latter  is  round  and  straight.  In  color 
it  is  somewhat  lighter  green.  It  also  spreads  by  means  of 
underground  stems  and  forms  an  excellent  sod. 

The  seed  is  cheaper  than  that  of  the  Kentucky  blue  grass 
because  it  does  not  have  to  be  stripped  from  the  stem,  but  when 
mature  the  grass  can  be  cut  and  threshed  in  an  ordinary  separ- 
ator. On  account  of  this  cheapness  it  has  often  been  used  as 
an  adulterant  in  the  seed  of  Kentucky  blue  grass,  which  gave  it 
a  bad  name.  It  has,  however,  considerable  importance  of  its 
own.  '\\Tiile  not  so  desirable  as  Kentucky  blue  grass  where 
that  will  thrive  on  soils  too  poor  or  too  sour  for  Kentucky  blue 
grass,  the  Canada  blue  grass  often  takes  possession,  producing 
excellent  pasturage  and  sometimes  the  only  hay  that  could  be 
grown. 

Brome  grass. —  This  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  with  stems 


96  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


reaching  to  the  height  of  four  feet.  It  spreads  by  means  of 
underground  stems  and  has  a  tendency  to  grow  in  tufts  or  mats 
that  gradually  increase  in  diameter  till  in  the  course  of  time  a 

dense  sod  is  formed,  after 
which  few  culms  are  produced. 
This  grass  is  therefore  better 
suited  for  pastures  than  hay 
meadows.  It  is  not  popular  in 
the  timothy  and  clover  region, 
but  it  has  an  important  place 
in  that  part  of  the  Northwest, 
having  dry  and  moderately 
warm  summer  weather.  It  is 
grown  chiefly  in  the  Dakotas 
and  northward  and  westward. 
On  account  of  its  deep  root 
system  it  produces  summer 
pasturage  when  shallow-rooted 
grasses  are  dried  up. 

Seeds  and  seeding^. —  The 
seed  usually  weighs  only  four- 
teen pounds  per  bushel,  but 
may  vary  in  weight  from  twelve 
to  twenty  pounds  per  bushel. 
For  hay,  a  bushel  of  seed  usu- 
ally is  sown,  but  for  pasture 
twice  that  would  not  be  too 
much,  since  the  brome  grass 
would  in  that  case  form  a  sod 
sooner.  Under  semi-arid  con- 
ditions, it  is  usually  sowti  in 
the  spring  without  a  nurse 
crop.  If  grown  in  the  timothy 
and  clover  region,  it  may  be 
sown  at  the  same  time  and 
manner  as  orchard  grass. 

Value. — In  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions of  the  Northwest  this 
grass  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant pasture  grasses,  withstanding  dry  weather  better  than 
any  other  cultivated  grass  and  at  the  same  time  producing  a 
most  palatable  pasturage.  As  a  hay  crop  it  reaches  its  maxi- 
mum growth  the  third  year,  after  which  the  yield  decreases 


Fig. 


26. —  Canada  blue  grass. — Farmers 
Bulletin  J,02. 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  97 

rapidly.  It  is  like  timptliy  in  the  fact  that  its  cutting  stage 
extends  over  a  wide  period  of  time  without  seriously  injuring 
the  quality  of  the  hay.    The  yield,  however,  usually  is  not  high. 

Secondary  grasses. — A  number  of  other  grasses  are  some- 
times grown  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned:  (1)  Tall  meadow  oat-grass,  Avhich 
has  many  of  the  adaptations  and  characteristics  of  orchard 
grass  and  may  be  sown  with  it;  (2)  meadow  fescue  which  has 
many  of  the  adaj^tations  and  some  of  the  characteristics  of 
timothy.  It  yields  much  less  and  is  not  so  desirable  and  is 
therefore  little  grown.  (3)  Tall  fescues,  and  other  fescues. 
These  grasses  have  about  the  same  characteristics  as  (2)  and 
no  one  is  grown  extensively  in  the  United  States.  (4,  5)  Italian 
rye  grass  and  English  or  perennial  rye  grass.  These  grasses 
are  used  principally  as  annual  hay  crops,  for  laAvn  mixtures 
and  for  winter  pastures  in  the  South.  (6)  Slender  wheat  grass. 
This  is  a  native  grass  of  theNorthwest  and  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  semi-arid  condition  of  that  region.  It  is  also  used  some- 
times in  grass  mixtures  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  (7)  West- 
ern wheat  grass  is  another  native  grass  of  the  West.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  being  more  alkali  resistant  than  other  cultivated 
grasses. 

Millets. —  The  term  ''millets'^  is  applied  to  a  number  of 
related  plants  that  are  used  for  forage  in  this  country,  and  in 
the  old  world  principally  for  human  food.  They  are  annuals, 
and  their  principal  use  in  the  timothy  and  clover  region  is  as 
a  catch  crop  after  some  early  crop  has  failed.  AVlien  cut  in  the 
blossoming  stage  a  fair  yield  of  good  hay  may  be  expected.  In 
the  west,  from  Kansas  northward,  they  are  much  more  gen- 
erally grow^n. 

Sorghums. —  The  term  '' sorghum"  covers  a  wide  range  of 
related  plants,  among  which  are  a  number  of  varieties  that  are 
valuable  for  forage  and  for  grain.  Others  are  used  for  syrup 
production,  while  still  others  are  used  for  broom-making. 

In  the  southwest,  from  Kansas  southward,  the  sorghums  are 
conmionly  grown,  constituting  the  principal  grain  and  forage 
crop  of  that  region.  The  varieties  used  for  syrup  production 
and  broom-making  are  grown  quite  extensively  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  United  States. 

Soudan  grass.— This  is  a  tall  grass-like  plant,  growing  five 
or  six  feet  tall  under  cultural  conditions.  It  matures  early 
enough  to  be  groA\m  in  the  north,  and  produces  a  good  quality 
of  hay.    Like  the  millets,  it  can  be  used  as  a  catch  crop,  but  it 


98  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


gives  a  higher  yield  and  generally  produces  a  better  hay.  In 
the  south  a  number  of  crops  may  be  cut.  It  may  be  broadcasted 
or  sown  in  rows.  In  the  former  case,  twenty-five  to  thirty 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  Avill  be  necessary,  while  if  planted  in 
rows  five  or  six  j^ounds  will  suffice. 

The  legumes. — This  is  a  group  of  plants  to  Avhich  peas,  beans, 
clovers  and  similar  plants  belong.  It  is  an  important  group, 
containing,  besides  the  three  mentioned,  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover, 
coAvpeas  and  soy  beans,  vetches,  Japan  clover  and  many  others. 
The  two  principal  characteristics  of  this  group  are:  (1)  Their 
richness  in  protein.  (2)  Their  ability  to  assimilate  nitrogen 
from  the  air  with  the  aid  of  bacteria  growing  in  the  nodules 
developed  on  their  roots. 

The  following  table  shows  the  superiority  of  hay  made  of 
legumes : 


Digestible  Nutrients 

Contained  in  100  Pounds  op 

IlAY 

VARIETY 

PROTEIN 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

FAT 

variety 

PROTEIN 

carbo- 
hydrates 

FAT 

Timothy 

Red  top  

Orchard  grass  . 

Millet 

Alfalfa 

Red  clover  .... 

2.S 
4.8 
4.9 
5.0 
10.5 
7.1 

42.4 

46.9 
42.4 
46.9 
40.5 
37.8 

1.3 

1.0 

1.4 

1.1 

.9 

l.S 

Sweet  clover  . . 
Alsike  clover  . 
Soy  bean  .... 

Cowpea 

Vetch 

Wheat  bran  .. 

10.0 
8.4 

10.6 
9.2 

11.9 

12.5 

37.0 
39.7 
40.9 
39.3 

37.8 
41.6 

1.5 
1.1 

1.2 
1.3 

1.8 
3.0 

From  Henry's  Feeds  and  Feeding 

This  high  protein  content  makes  their  feeding  value  greater 
for  all  kinds  of  livestock,  and  allows  them  to  take  the  place  of 
high-priced  concentrates  to  a  considerable  extent.  More  than 
that  alfalfa,  and  to  a  less  extent  clover,  are  very  rich  in  lime 
content,  giving  them  an  added  value  for  young  growing  live- 
stock and  dairy  animals. 

Legumes  are  the  only  plants  that  have  the  power  of  utilizing 
the  free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  exact  amount  they  are  able 
to  assimilate  cannot  be  stated,  for  it  varies  with  (1)  complete- 
ness of  the  inoculation,  (2)  condition  of  the  soil,  (3)  amount  of 
nitrate  already  in  the  soil,  (4)  kind  of  legume. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  taken  from  the  air  varies  from  noth- 
ing, in  cases  where  no  inoculation  has  taken  place,  up  to  fifty 
to  two  hundred  pounds  per  acre  in  case  of  complete  inoculation. 
This  is  equivalent  to  applying  from  three  hundred  to  twelve 
hundred  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre. 

Free  nitrogen  will  be  taken  from  the  air  only  when  the  proper 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  99 

kind  of  bacteria  are  present  to  form  nodules  on  the  roots. 
Generally  no  special  care  has  to  be  taken  with  clovers  and  other 
commonly  grown  legmnes  to  see  that  the  proper  bacteria  are 
present,  but  that  is  not  the  case  with  the  more  recently  intro- 
duced varieties,  such  as  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover,  soy  beans  and 
vetch.  AMien  sown  for  the  first  time  they  should  always  be 
inoculated  with  their  special  nitrogen  gathering  bacteria. 

The  proper  bacteria  for  each  legmne  is  being  spread  much 
faster  by  the  fact  that  there  are  only  seven  grouj^s  among  the 
cultivated  legumes,  each  group  having  the  same  variety  of 
nitrogen  gathering  bacteria.    These  groujos  are : 

1.  Red,  Avhite,  alsike,  and  crimson  clovers. 

2.  Alfalfa,  sweet  clover,  bur  clover,  yellow  trefoil. 

3.  Cowpea,  Japan  clover,  peanut,  velvet,  bean. 

4.  Garden  pea,  field  pea,  vetches,  lentil,  sweet  pea. 
V).    Soy  bean. 

6.  Garden  or  field  bean,  navy,  kidney  beans,  scarlet  runner. 

7.  Lupine,  serradella. 

Inoculation. —  AVhen  grown  on  any  soil  for  the  first  time,  any 
legume  may  be  inoculated  by  scattering  one  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred pounds  or  more  of  soil  to  the  acre,  from  an  old  field  where 
the  same  legume  (or  one  belonging  to  the  same  group  as  indi- 
cated above),  has  been  previously  grown  successfully  and 
produced  nodules. 

If  soil  is  difficult  to  secure,  a  small  amount  may  be  obtained 
and  thoroughly  sifted  and  well  mixed  with  the  seed  after  they 
have  been  made  sticky  by  being  moistened  with  a  small  quantity 
of  water  containing  a  little  liquid  glue  or  molasses  and  alloAvod 
partly  to  dry.  A  quart  or  two  of  soil  to  each  bushel  of  seed  will 
be  sufficient.  When  treated  in  this  way  each  seed  will  have  a  thin 
coat  of  soil,'' 

All  things  considered,  probably  the  most  satisfactory  method 
of  inoculation  is  to  use  cultures.  These  may  be  obtained  from 
nearly  all  seed  houses.  The  seeds  are  simply  moistened  some 
time  before  planting  wdth  the  liquid.  Complete  directions  come 
with  the  culture.  Under  certain  restrictions,  limited  quantities 
are  supiolied  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  by  several  experiment  stations. 

If  the  soil  is  rich  in  nitrogen,  legumes  will  grow  well  without 
inoculation,  but  in  that  case  no  part  of  nitrogen  used  by  them 
will  be  taken  from  the  air,  and  one  of  the  principal  advantages 
of  gro^^^ng  them  will  be  lost. 

MVisconsin  Circular  9fi;   Bullclin  202,  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


100  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Medium  red  clover. —  Red  clover  is  the  most  conmionly  grown 
and  the  most  important  legmiiinous  forage  crop.  It  thrives  best 
in  regions  having  a  humid  climate  and  a  moist  soil  not  deficient 
in  lime.  It  will  not  thrive  on  soils  that  have  become  very  acid, 
but  the  application  of  lime  will  generally  make  it  possible  to 
secure  a  stand. 

Seeds  and  seeding. — The  seeds  are  generally  secured  from  the 
second  crop  of  clover.  They  are  produced  wherever  clover  is 
grown  extensively. 

When  seeded  with  timothy,  eight  pounds  per  acre  are  used,  but 
when  seeded  alone  ten  to  twelve  pounds  or  more  are  commonly 
used.  In  the  winter  wheat  region,  it  may  be  sown  in  the  grain 
very  early  in  the  spring,  depending  on  the  alternate  thawing  and 
freezing  to  cover  the  seed.  Later,  when  the  soil  becomes  drj^ 
enough,  the  special  grass  seed  drill  may  be  used.  Usually  all  the 
seed  are  put  in  w^ith  the  seeder  going  at  right  angles  to  the  grain 
drill  rows. 

Sowing  in  the  spring  and  in  the  late  summer  is  also  practiced. 

Characteristics. —  Medium  red  clover  is  generally  regarded  as 
a  biennial.  The  great  majority  of  plants  die  at  the  end  of  the 
second  year  after  producing  a  crop  of  seeds,  but  some  may  live 
longer  if  they  are  prevented  from  producing  seed  by  pasturing 
or  frequent  cutting.  Most  of  the  plants  that  appear  after  the 
second  year  may  be  accounted  for  by  self-seeding  or  by  the  fact 
that  in  any  ordinary  lot  of  clover  seed  there  are  many  so-called 
''hard  seeds"  that  will  not  germinate  till  they  have  undergone 
the  freezing  and  thawing  of  a  winter  or  two. 

Time  to  cut  for  liay. — The  clovers  are  at  their  best  state  for 
cutting  at  their  blossoming  period,  after  which  they  become 
woody,  and  decrease  in  weight  and  protein  content,  on  account 
of  the  loss  of  leaves. 

Value. —  Some  of  the  reasons  why  clover  is  so  generally 
grown,  besides  its  high  yield  and  good  feeding  qualities  are :  It 
fits  in  so  w^ell  in  the  usual  four-  or  five-year  rotation.  The  clover 
or  clover  and  timothy  can  be  seeded  with  the  grain,  causing  no 
loss  of  time,  and  the  following  year  producing  hay  and  pasture 
or  hay  and  seed.  When  the  stubble  and  roots  are  j^lowed  down, 
the  soil  is  benefited  more  than  by  any  other  legumes  except 
alfalfa  and  possibly  sweet  clover.  Fully  thirty  per  cent  of  the 
organic  matter,  and  nitrogen  of  the  plant  is  in  the  roots. 

Mammoth  red  clover. —  This  is  a  larger  variety  of  red  clover, 
blossoming  about  two  weeks  later.  It  is  also  called  sapling 
clover.     It  is  better  adapted  to  mix  with  timothy,  since  both 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPB  ;      :       , ;  lOh 

blossom  at  the  same  time.  However,  its  coarser  stems  do  not 
make  such  fine  hay  and  generally  but  one  cutting  can  be  secured. 

Alsike  clover. —  This  is  a  thin-stemmed,  leafy  perennial, 
having  flowers  much  like  those  of  the  white  clover.  "While  it  is 
shallow-rooted,  it  resists  drought  about  as  Avell  as  the  red  clover, 
and  has  a  Avider  range,  for  it  does  not  winter-kill  as  easily  and 
Avill  endure  more  heat.  It  will  thrive  on  soils  too  Avet  and  too 
sour  for  red  clover  and  therefore  is  valuable  wherever  red  clover 
no  longer  will  thrive  and  on  wet  fields.  This  fact  also  makes  it  a 
valuable  addition  to  grass  mixtures. 

Seed  and  seeding. — The  seeds  of  alsike  clover  are  small,  and 
five  to  eight  pounds  per  acre  are  sufficient  when  seeded  alone, 
while  in  mixtures  two  to  three  pounds  will  suffice.  With  red  top 
it  makes  a  good  mixture  for  wet  soils. 

Alsike  clover  can  be  seeded  and  the  crop  treated  in  much  the 
same  way  as  red  clover.  Its  blossoming  period  comes  later  and 
it  retains  its  good  equalities  longer  without  deterioration.  The 
yield  on  the  average  is  smaller  than  that  of  red  clover. 

White  clover. —  This  clover  resembles  alsike,  having  slender 
stems,  similar  flowers  and  being  a  perennial.  The  stems,  how- 
ever, creep  along  the  ground  and  produce  roots  at  every  joint, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  a  single  plant  will  occupy  a  consider- 
able area.  This  habit  of  growth  makes  it  of  little  value  as  a 
hay  plant  but  makes  it  an  excellent  addition  to  mixtures  for 
pastures  or  laA^^lS.  It  is  able  to  maintain  itself  not  only  by  the 
fact  that  its  creeping  stems  are  producing  new  plants,  but  that 
it  is  able  to  reseed  itself  under  pasture  conditions  by  its  short 
heads  dropping  seed  from  time  to  time.  Some  of  these  seeds 
are  "hard"  and  do  not  germinate  for  a  number  of  years.  The 
seed  are  about  the  same  size  as  those  of  the  alsike,  and  two  to 
three  pounds  per  acre  for  pastures,  and  twice  that  much  for 
lawn  mixtures  will  be  enough. 

Crimson  clover. — This  clover,  as  its  name  indicates,  has  a  con- 
sjiicuous  crimson  head.  In  the  region  where  it  is  most  commonly 
grown,  which  is  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New  Jersey  south- 
ward and  in  many  parts  of  the  cotton  belt,  it  is  a  winter  annual. 
In  this  region  it  is  grown  principally  as  a  green  manure,  being 
sown  after  an  early  crop  such  as  potatoes,  or  in  the  standing 
corn,  and  then  plowed  down  the  following  spring. 

When  used  for  hay  it  should  be  cut  before  the  flower  heads 
develop.  These  heads  are  covered  with  hard,  stiff  hairs,  and  if 
found  in  the  hay  are  apt  to  cause  trouble  in  the  intestines  of 
the  horses. 


102;     TH^  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  seed  of  crimson  clover  is  two  or  three  times  as  large  as 
that  of  red  clover.  After  the  first  year,  the  vitality  of  the  seed 
rapidly  deteriorates,  consequently  it  is  wise  to  have  it  tested 
before  buying.  Twelve  to  twenty  pounds  per  acre  is  usually 
sown. 

Japan  clover. —  This  is  a  small,  thin-vined  annual  that  grows 
wild  in  many  parts  of  the  South.  It  will  grow  as  far  north  as 
southern  Pennsylvania  and  will  thrive  on  any  Avell-drained  soil ; 
its  great  value,  hoAvever,  lies  in  its  remarkable  ability  to  grow 
well  and  form  a  dense  mat  on  poor,  sandy  soils.  After  a  few 
crops,  on  such  soils  it  is  often  possible  to  grow  larger  plants. 
When  once  planted,  although  an  annual,  it  is  able  to  maintain 
itself  and  spread  because  it  readily  reseeds  itself  in  the  region 
adapted  for  it.  It  is  wise  to  plant  this  clover  on  the  soils  too 
thin  for  other  clovers,  and  to  include  it  in  pasture  and  lawn 
mixtures  for  the  poorer  soils. 

Sweet  clover. —  This  plant  is  a  biennial  and  has  only  recently 
come  to  be  well  known  as  a  forage  crop  and  a  soil  builder. 
When  young,  the  plant  much  resembles  alfalfa,  but  has  a  bitter 
taste,  ^^^len  growing  isolated,  it  forms  a  large  bushy  plant, 
five  or  six  feet,  or,  under  favorable  circumstances,  even  eight 
or  ten  feet  tall,  wdth  the  ends  of  its  twigs  covered  with  small 
white  flowers. 

During  the  first  season  the  plant  grows  slowly  at  first,  but  by 
fall  may  reach  the  height  of  four  or  five  feet  and  even  develop 
some  blossoms,  especially  in  the  South.  Meanwhile,  it  develops 
a  root  system  that  is  characterized  by  a  large  tap  root  which  is 
powerful  enough  to  penetrate  the  stiffest  clay,  and  in  which  the 
plant  is  storing  reserve  food.  Very  early  the  next  spring,  from 
the  croAvn  of  this  root,  a  number  of  shoots  are  sent  up,  forming 
the  very  earliest  pasturage. 

Live  stock  will  usually  refuse  sweet  clover  at  first,  but  after 
they  have  once  acquired  a  taste  for  it,  there  is  no  further  trouble 
from  this  source.  The  bitter  taste  in  the  plant  is  due  to  a  sub- 
stance called  cumerin,  which  it  contains.  Some  plants  have  more 
than  others  and  old  plants  have  more  than  new  shoots. 

Sweet  clover  will  thrive  almost  any^vhere  in  the  United  States, 
on  soil  too  poor  or  too  deficient  in  organic  matter  for  clover  or 
alfalfa  to  grow,  but  the  soil  must  have  plenty  of  lime.  SAveet 
clover  requires  a  very  firm  seed  bed  to  give  it  a  good  start.  In 
fact  stands  have  been  obtained  Avhen  the  soil  Avas  so  hard  that 
the  drill  could  scarcely  scratch  the  ground.  AMien  soAvn  on  any 
soil  for  the  first  time,  inoculation  should  be  practiced. 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  103 

Seeds  and  seeding. — The  seeds  on  the  market  are  generally 
unhulled.  These  contain  a  high  percentage  of  ''hard  seeds" 
requiring  twentj-'five  to  thirty  pounds  for  a  seeding,  and  some- 
what less  if  hulled  seeds  are  used.  The  seeding  may  be  done  at 
the  time  it  is  customary  to  seed  red  clover.  In  the  crimson  clover 
region,  it  may  also  be  sowti  at  the  same  time  and  manner  as  that 
clover  with  a  good  chance  of  success.  When  used  for  hay,  it 
should  be  cut  just  before  the  lirst  blossoms  appear  or  a  little 
earlier,  for  the  stems  rapidly  become  woody  thereafter.  Two 
cuttings  may  be  expected.  However,  care  must  be  taken  that  it 
is  not  cut  too  low,  for,  unlike  alfalfa,  the  new  shoots  do  not  come 
from  the  crown  of  the  roots,  but  from  the  lower  joints. 

Varieties. —  Besides  the  white  blossomed  sweet  clover,  there 
are  two  yellow  blossomed  varieties  found  in  this  country,  one  a 
biennial,  the  other  generally  an  annual.  The  biennial  variety 
is  much  less  valuable  than  the  Avhite  variety  while  the  annual 
variety  has  still  less  value. 

Alfalfa. —  This  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  legume  living  for  a 
nmnber  of  years  under  favorable  soil  conditions.  A  mature 
plant  has  a  large  root  up  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  and,  when  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  its  growth,  extending  many  feet  into 
the  soil.  From  the  crown  of  the  root  many  fine  stems  are  senj 
up  early  in  the  spring,  and  a  second  set  about  the  time  the  firs^ 
begins  to  show  blossoms.  The  flowers  of  the  common  alfalfa 
are  violet  or  purple  in  color,  and  are  arranged  in  head-like 
clusters. 

Alfalfa  is  best  adapted  to  regions  having  dry  air  with  a  good 
supply  of  water  in  the  subsoil.  Consequently  alfalfa  occupies! 
the  same  place  in  western  agriculture  that  clover  does  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  the  West,  little  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  getting  a  stand,  on  almost  any  type  of  soil. 
In  the  East,  however,  where  the  climate  is  more  or  less  humid, 
more  precautions  are  necessary  and  the  soil  conditions  are  more 
exacting.  A  deep,  fertile,  well-drained  soil,  free  of  acid,  ia 
required.  It  thrives  best  in  loam  soils,  with  an  open  subsoil. 
A  stand  may  be  obtained  on  sandy  soils  provided  enough  lime 
and  organic  matter  is  supplied.  However,  on  loose,  sandy  soils, 
especially  if  underlain  with  gravel,  a  higher  percentage  of  fail- 
ures is  to  be  expected.  Failure  is  almost  certain  on  soils  under- 
lain, at  shallow  depths,  with  hard  pan,  with  a  layer  of  rock, 
or  impervious  clays.  Neither  can  success  be  expected,  if  stand- 
ing Avater  is  found  near  the  surface,  nor  if  at  any  time  water  or 
ice  remains  on  the  surface  for  any  length  of  time. 


104     THE  HANDBOOK  FOB  PBACTICAL  FAK. 


FARMERS 


Fig.  27.— a 


vigorous  two-vear  old  a  If.,  if  „      7     ^ 


I, 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS 


105 


Li7ne  and  fertilizers. — To  thrive  well  alfalfa  requires  both  a 
plentiful  supx)ly  of  lime  and  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil.  A 
liberal  apjDlication  of  good  manure  is  nearly  always  beneficial, 
especially  if  applied  to  the  seedbed.  On  older  soils  three  hun- 
dred to  four  hundred  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  in  addition  will 
usually  give  good  results.  When  sown  on  any  soil  for  the  first 
time,  inoculation  should  be  practiced. 

Varieties. —  In  the  North,  where  winters  are  severe,  the  more 
hardy  varieties  will  often  do  best.  In  the  great  central  region, 
the  common  variety  should  be  grown,  using  seed  from  the  north- 
west, from  Kansas  northward.  In  the  far  South,  it  is  safe  to 
use  the  southern  varieties  of  alfalfa. 

Seeding. — The  greatest  jiercentages  of  successful  stands  have 
been  obtained  by  sowing,  without  a  nurse  crop,  in  early  August, 
or  even  earlier  in  the  far  North,  after  a  good  seed  bed  had  been 
prepared  early  in  the  season.  Early  spring  sowing  is  often 
practiced  but  the  percentage  of  failures  is  greater,  both  when 
sown  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop. 


Fig.  2S. —  Sections  of  the  United  States  where  alfalfa  is  grown. 


Alfalfa  should  generally  be  cut  for  hay  when  the  young  shoots 
at  the  base  of  the  plants  first  appear.  If  cutting  is  delayed  till 
these  young  shoots  become  long  enough  to  be  cut  by  the  luower, 
the  next  crop  may  be  damaged.  The  shoots  generally  appear  at 
the  same  time  as  the  first  blossoms,  but  they  may  appear  consid- 
erably later.    Blossoms  alone  are  therefor  not  a  safe  guide. 

Soy  beans. —  The  soy  bean  is  an  annual  legume  mth  a  stiff 


106   THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


upright  stem  having  the  beans  dustering  around  it.  Both  beans 
and  plant  mature  at  the  same  time.  It  is  grown  for  the  seed, 
for  hay  and  for  pasture.  There  are  many  different  varieties 
and  they  vary  in  height  from  one  and  one-half  to  five  feet,  and 

from  sixty  days  to  two  hundred 
days  in  time  for  maturing.  Soy 
beans  are  adapted  to  a  Avide  range 
of  soils,  but  in  the  South  they  are 
replaced  by  cowpeas  on  sandy 
soils,  where  the  latter  will  outyield 
I     y  AW   .  i^Hj  them. 

«l      \Mlk    mt^'  ^^  ^  seed  crop  is  desired,  they 

im"  ■    aBk  JBrJ  are  planted  in  rows  wide  enough 

^         ^BP-SjBpJf.  apart  to  cultivate,  usually  three  to 

four  feet.  The  corn  planter  may 
be  used  to  plant  them.  For  hog- 
pasture  they  are  planted  in  rows 
about  half  that  far  apart.  The 
corn  planter  may  be  used,  strad- 
dling every  other  row,  or  the  grain 
drill,  by  stopping  up  the  proper 
nmnber  of  holes.  For  hay  they 
are  planted  thicker  in  the  rows, 
or  sown  like  grain,  in  which  case 
it  will  take  one  and  one-half  to 
two  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  For 
seed,  one-half  bushel  per  acre  will 
suffice.  They  are  a  hot  weather 
plant  and  should  not  be  planted 
any  sooner  than  the  corn. 

If  planted  for  the  first  time  on 
an}^  soil,  the}^  should  be  inoculated. 
For  hay,  they  should  be  cut  be- 
fore there  is  any  danger  of  losing 
any  leaves,  which  is  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  some  of  the  bottom 
leaves  are  turning  yellow.  For 
seed,  they  are  left  till  the  leaves 
have  dropped  off,  when  they  are 
cut,  dried,  and  threshed.  There 
are  a  number  of  special  harvesters 
that    strip    the    beans    from    the 


Fig.  29. —  Tlie  soy  bean  plant.— 
Maryland  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  201. 


standing  plant. 


I 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  107 

Soy  bean  liay  is  nearly  as  nutritious  as  that  of  alfalfa,  while 
the  beans  are  a  very  concentrated  food,  usually  carrying  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  of  protein  and  up  to  twentj^  jDer 
cent  of  oil.  The  oil  is  self-drying,  and  can  be  used  in  paints. 
It  is  also  valuable  for  culinary  purposes. 

Cowpeas. —  The  cowpea  plant  has  much  the  same  appearance 
as  the  soy  bean  and  is  used  in  much  the  same  way.  The  planting 
and  cutting  is  much  alike  also.  It  is  not  grown  as  far  north 
because  there  is  no  variety  that  matures  quick  enough  for  north- 
ern conditions.  Even  in  the  South  the  cowpea  is  being  replaced 
somewhat  by  the  soy  bean,  for  the  reason  that  on  the  better  soils 
the  latter  is  superior  to  the  former  both  in  yield  of  beans  and 
forage.  On  the  poorer  and  on  sandy  soils,  however,  the  cowpea 
is  the  better  yielder,  and  is  favored.  It  is  also  favored  on  the 
smaller  farms  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  seed  may  be 
obtained  by  picking  pods  from  plants  growing  in  the  standing 
corn. 

Field  peas. —  The  field  pea  is  an  annual  and  differs  but  little 
from  the  garden  pea,  one  difference  being  that  some  of  the 
flowers  of  the  former  are  colored.  It  is  quite  commonly  used  in 
the  North  as  a  quick  hay  crop,  and  for  the  same  purpose  in  that 
part  of  the  South  where  the  winters  are  mild  enough  to  grow 
it  as  a  winter  annual.  The  vines  are  very  weak,  making  it 
difficult  to  cut  the  hay.  Oats  are  commonly  sown  with  the  peas, 
to  helf)  hold  up  the  vines.  This  mixture  makes  an  excellent  hay 
and  gives  no  special  difficulties  in  curing.  Two  bushels  of  each 
are  commonly  seeded.  A  yield  of  two  to  three  tons  of  hay  is 
often  obtained. 

Vetches. —  The  two  varieties  of  vetches  most  generally  known 
in  the  United  States  are  the  hairy  vetch  and  the  common  vetch. 
The  former  is  best  adapted  for  the  North  and  the  latter  for  the 
South.  The  hairy  vetch  will  do  Avell  on  almost  any  fertile  soil, 
but  it  has  gained  the  name  of  sand  vetch  on  account  of  its  ability 
of  doing  well  on  sandy  soils. 

AVhen  planted  alone,  the  vetches  are  difficult  to  cut  for  hay  on 
account  of  their  tangled  vines.  They  are  therefor  commonlj^ 
sown  with  grain.  The  hairy  vetch,  which  is  also  sometimes 
called  the  winter  vetch,  is  commonly  planted  in  the  early  fall 
with  rye  or  w^heat.  In  the  South,  the  spring  vetch  is  commonly 
planted  with  oats. 

The  best  time  for  cutting  is  when  the  vetch  is  in  full  bloom, 
Of  all  the  legume  hays,  the  vetch  is  the  highest  in  protein.  On 
account  of  the  smaller  size  of  the  seed,  one-half  bushel  of  hairy 


108  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

vetch  and  one  bushel  of  grain  per  acre  is  sufficient,  while  one  to 
two  bushels  of  common  vetch  seed  must  be  used.  One  of  the 
principal  reasons  why  more  vetch  is  not  grown  is  the  relatively 
high  cost  of  seed. 

Hay  making. —  To  make  hay  of  good  quality  a  number  of 
important  factors  must  be  considered,  such  as  the  condition  of 
the  weather,  the  proper  time  of  cutting,  and  the  j^roper  time  and 
manner  of  curing  and  storing. 

Weather  conditions. — This  important  factor,  of  course,  cannot 
be  controlled  by  the  farmer.  Good  hay  cannot  be  made  during 
rainy  weather.  Much  of  the  damage  done  by  cutting  during  wet 
weather  could  be  avoided  if  farmers  did  not  so  generally  depend 
on  their  own  ''guess"  as  to  what  the  weather  was  going  to  be. 
With  the  daily  paper  and  the  telephone  available,  the  farmers 
now  have  the  weather  forcasts  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, or  can  easily  obtain  them.  These  forecasts  are  the  work  of 
hundreds  of  trained  observers,  working  over  a  wide  area,  and 
are  very  reliable.  With  more  attention  paid  to  these  forecasts, 
less  damage  by  rain  would  follow. 

Proper  time  for  cutting^. —  The  stage  of  maturity  at  Avhich 
cutting  gives  the  best  results,  varies  somewhat  with  the  plant 
and  with  the  use  to  which  the  hay  is  to  be  put.  The  common 
grasses,  when  cut  at  an  early  stage,  and  well  cured,  make  a  good 
hay.  As  a  rule,  they  are  cut  just  as  they  are  beginning  to  bloom, 
or  just  after  the  bloom  has  fallen.  If  cut  when  in  full  bloom, 
the  hay  is  sure  to  be  more  or  less  dusty.  If  cut  after  it  has 
reached  a  more  mature  state,  a  greater  weight  of  hay  may  often 
be  secured,  but  it  will  usually  be  less  palatable.  In  the  case  of 
timothy,  for  home  use  it  is  usually  cut  at  an  early  stage ;  if  for 
the  city  market,  it  is  cut  at  a  more  mature  state.  AVith  clover 
the  best  results  are  obtained  if  cut  when  in  full  bloom  just  as  a 
few  heads  turn  brown.  If  left  till  a  more  mature  state,  there 
will  be  a  great  loss  of  leaves,  which  contain  the  most  protein. 
Soy  beans  should  be  cut  when  the  pods  are  well  filled,  and  before 
the  bottom  leaves  turn  yellow,  while  in  the  case  of  the  cowpeas, 
the  yellow  leaves  at  the  bottom  indicate  that  the  proper  time  of 
cutting  has  arrived. 

Proper  curing. —  When  hay  has  been  properly  cured  a  change 
has  taken  place  that  gives  it  a  characteristic  odor  and  makes  it 
palatable.  This  change  is  not  simply  a  drying  out  but  a  fermen- 
tation, brought  about  by  enzymes  present  in  the  plant. 

It  is  well  known  that  rains  and  excessive  dews  damage  the 
quality  of  hay.    Excessive  exposure  to  the  sun  is  also  damaging. 


FORAGE  AND  SOILING  CROPS  109 

The  curing  should  be  done  largely  by  the  action  of  the  air  and 
wind.  To  understand  this,  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  how  plants 
grow.  The  great  amount  of  water  that  plants  take  from  the  soil, 
jDasses  up  through  the  stems  and  branches  and  escapes  to  the 
air  through  the  millions  of  fine  openings  in  the  leaves.  This 
process  continues  after  the  plant  is  cut,  the  leaves  pumping  the 
water  out  of  the  stems  as  it  were.  If,  however,  the  leaves  are 
exposed  to  the  hot  sun,  they  dry  up,  the  fine  openings  are  sealed 
up,  and  the  escape  of  the  water  in  the  plant  is  made  difficult. 
We  should  therefor  "make  hay  while  the  sun  shines"  but  allow 
the  leaves  to  dry  in  the  shade. 

Before  beginning  to  cut  in  the  morning,  it  is  well  to  wait  till 
the  dew  is  well  dried  off,  for  this  drying  will  take  place  quicker 
with  the  grass  standing  than  with  it  lying  in  the  swath.  It 
should  be  left  in  the  swath  only  long  enough  to  become  thor- 
oughly wilted,  and  then  raked  into  windrows,  where  the  leaves 
will  continue  to  pump  water  from  the  stems.  If  the  hay  is  left 
in  the  swath  till  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  dry,  they  will  break 
off  when  the  hay  is  handled,  and  much  of  the  best  part  of  the 
hay  will  be  lost.  This  applies  especially  to  the  clovers  and  to 
alfalfa. 

AVhere  large  amounts  of  hay  are  made,  it  is  usual  to  cure  it 
in  windrows,  using  the  side  delivery  rake  and  to  load  with  the 
hay  loader.  The  best  hay  is  probably  made  by  curing  in  cocks, 
since  there  is  less  exposure  to  the  sun. 

Storing". — Hay  is  best  stored  in  barns  or  sheds.  AVhen  stacked 
in  the  field  there  is  considerable  loss,  especially  if  the  stacks  are 
small.  In  tests  made  it  was  found  that  there  was  a  twenty  per 
cent  loss  in  a  ten-ton  stack  before  the  first  winter  and  a  forty 
per  cent  loss  when  left  till  the  following  spring. 


CHAPTER  V 

POTATOES 

White  potato. —  The  white  or  Irish  potato,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  is  grown  extensively  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  products  taken 
from  the  soil. 

The  TE]sr-YEAR  Average  Acreage,'  Acre-yields,  Production,  Farm  Price,  asd  Farm 
Value  of  Potatoes  for  the  Ten  Leading  Potato-producing  States,  1908-1917 


state 

average 
acreage 
( acres ) 

AVERAGE 

acre-yield 
(bushels) 

AVERAGE 

production 
(bushels) 

AVER.A,GE 

FARM  PRICE 

DEC.   1 

( cents ) 

AVERAGE 

FARM  VALUE 

DEC.  1 

(dollars) 

New  York           

383,800 
345,500 
283,900 
128,300 
235,000 
284,300 
167,300 
150,200 
141,400 
105,600 
20,600* 

93 

90 

99 

205 

100 

83 

82 

80 

75 

92 

162t 

36.026,100 
31,274,400 
28,338.400 
25,741,600 
24,007,500 
23,609,100 
13.745,800 
12.158.900 
10.721,200 
10.034,200 
3,369,400^^ 

82 
64 
60 
71 

58 
84 
85 
80 
89 
84 
78t 

26,853,700 

Michio'an 

17,938,900 

15,552.200 

Maine 

17.452,100 

13,310,000 

Pennsylvania 

Ohio 

19,473,200 
10.796,800 

Iowa 

8,671,400 

9,161,800 

9,194.900 

Utah 

2.682.800* 

United  States 

3,704,400 

95.9 

356,125,200 

76 

266,114,800 

*  Five-year  average,  1913-1917 
t  Ten-year  average,  1908-1913. 


Fig.  30. — Cutting  the  potato.    Leave  from  one  to 
three  eyes  on  each  piece   ( seed ) . 

Moisture  is  also  an  important  factor, 
seventy-eight  per  cent  water,  and  the 
(not  wet)  soil  to  produce  a  maximum 

110 


T'tah  Afjricultural  College 

Climate. — T he  cli- 
matic conditions  in 
which  the  potato  is 
grown  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  yield. 
AVhere  the  summers 
are  cool  and  moist, 
Avith  a  growing  season 
of  from  one  hundred 
and  fifty  to  two  hun- 
dred days,  is  consid- 
ered the  ideal  condi- 
tion    for     production. 

since  the  tuber  is  about 
plant  requires  a  moist 

yield. 


POTATOES 


in 


Relation  of 

Meax  Temperatuue 

FOR  Juxe,  July  and  August  to  Yield  in  1909 

REGION- 

JUNE 

( degrees 
Fahrenheit) 

JULY 

(degrees 
Fahrenheit) 

AUGUST 

( degrees 

Fahrenheit ' 

YIELD 
PER  ACRE 

(bushels) 

New  York                            

05.0 
(il.n 
55.0 

70.0 
06. 9 
58.0 

G7.0 
65 . 0 

5S.() 

123 

Maine 

Scotland 

210 
350 

.V.  y.  t<tate  Collef/e  of  Agriculture 


Soil. — Both  the  sandy 
loam  and  clay  loam  are 
ideal.  Heavy  clay,  or 
very  light,  sandy  soil 
are  not  satisfactory. 
Clover  or  alfalfa  sods 
are  desirable,  but  all 
grass  land  infested  with 
white  grubs  or  cut- 
worms should  be  avoid- 
ed. Land  cropped  the 
previous  season,  left  in 
the  rough  over  winter, 
incorporated  with  suffi- 
cient well-decayed  hu- 
mus, is  most  desirable. 
For  a  late  crop,  the 
sod  should  be  clover,  alfalfa,  rye  or  some  similar  crop.  The 
soil  should  be  moist  when  plowed,  disked,  if  necessary,  and  the 
land  formed  into  a  desirable  seed  bed. 


'  "^^^^^^^^^^Pw^  ^ 

"mm 

'FS^ 

j^^fg 

^  '^    ^.^H 

it 

^^1 

'—m 

r       ^ 

Fig.  31. — One  seed  jiotato  was  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  each  plate.  Seed  (A)  was  selected 
from  a  jioor  hill  and  yielded  only  1.1  pounds 
or  56  bushels  jjer  acre.  Seed  (B)  was  from 
a  highly  producing  hill  and  gave  11.1  or  560 
bushels  per  acre.  Save  the  seed  from  the  best 
jjroducing  hill. 


Relation  op  Rotation  to  Yield  on  22S  Farjis  in  Steuben  County  in  1912 


MANURE  OR   FEHTILIZKU  OX   PART   OF  ACREAGE 

ROTATION 

Xumber  of 
farms 

Average  yiehl 
per  acre 
in  Inishels 

Average 

num))er  of 

bushels  of  seed 

used  per  acre 

Potatoes,  grain,  hay 

Potatoes,  grain,  hay,  hay 

Potatoes,  grain,  hay,  hay,  hay 

Potatoes,  grain,  grain,  hay,  hay 

Potatoes,  grain,  grain,  hay,  hay,  hay . 

13 
117 
62 
25 
11 

177.0 
134.9 
122.7 
150.1 
143.0 

10.9 

10.3 

10.0 

9.2 

8.8 

-Y.  y.  i>tatc  Collpf/r  of  Agriculture 


112  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Rotations  vary  greatly  under  different  soil,  fertilizer  and 
climatic  conditions.  It  is  desirable  that  the  crop  or  crops  pre- 
ceding the  potato  should  never  rob  the  soil  of  the  necessary 
fertilizer  to  support  a  maximum  yield.  Do  not  grow  potatoes 
on  the  same  soil  year  after  year. 


Fig.  32. —  Map  showing  the  potato-producing  areas  of  the  United  States  in  1909. 
—After  U.  S.  D  A. 

FERTILIZERS  FOR  POTATOES 

By  C.  W.  Ward,  B.S.* 

Stable  manure  is  the  most  satisfactory  fertilizer  for  potatoes. 
It  is,  however,  not  ahvays  available  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
supply  the  required  amount  of  plant  food.  Land  on  which  a 
good  crop  of  clover  or  alfalfa  grew  the  previous  season  may 
produce  a  satisfactory  yield  of  potatoes  without  the  application 
of  fertilizer  in  any  form.  The  yield  will,  as  a  rule,  be  profitably 
increased  on  such  land  if  stable  manure  is  applied  at  the  rate 
of  eight  to  ten  tons  per  acre.  On  grass  land  or  cultivated  land 
the  application  of  manure  should  be  much  heavier,  fifteen  to 
twenty  tons  per  acre  being  desirable  under  these  conditions. 

When  the  supply  of  stable  manure  is  not  sufficient,  commercial 
fertilizer  may  be  used  to  furnish  needed  plant  food.  Some  form 
of  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  used  profitably  on  nearly  all 
soils  in  which  potatoes  are  grown.  On  clover  or  alfalfa  sod-land 
two  hundred  fifty  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per 

'  Extension  Specialist,  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 


POTATOES  113 

acre  may  be  used.  The  heavier  applications  should  be  made  on 
the  heavier  types  of  soil.  On  land  which  has  not  grown  clover 
or  alfalfa  the  previous  season  a  fertilizer  containing  two  to  four 
per  cent  nitrogen,  eight  to  twelve  per  cent  phosphoric  acid,  and 
at  least  four  per  cent  potash  will  be  desirable.  The  rate  of 
application  of  a  complete  fertilizer  should  be  from  five  hundred 
to  one  thousand  pounds  per  acre.  Unleached  wood  ashes  used 
at  the  rate  of  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  pounds  per  acre  will 
supply  a  considerable  quantity  of  potash  and  a  small  amount  of 
phosphoric  acid. 

TIME  AND  METHOD  OF  APPLICATION 

Manure. —  Stable  manure  will  give  the  best  results  when  used 
on  sod-land  if  applied  in  the  fall.  The  best  time  to  make  the 
application  of  manure  is  just  after  the  hay  crop  is  removed. 
Manure  applied  at  that  time  will  stimulate  the  growth  of  grass, 
including  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  thus  add  organic  matter 
indirectly  to  the  soil.  Except  on  land  which  is  subject  to  surface 
washing,  it  is  better  to  apply  manure  for  potatoes  during  the 
winter  months  than  in  the  spring.  If  the  application  of  manure 
is  delayed  until  spring  the  earlier  it  is  applied  the  better  it  will 
be  for  the  potato  crop.  AVhenever  applied  it  should  be  spread 
as  it  is  hauled  and  not  allowed  to  remain  in  piles.  Manure 
applied  as  a  top  dressing  on  potatoes  does  not,  as  a  rule,  give 
satisfactory  results. 

Commercial  fertilizers. —  To  get  the  best  results  from  the  use 
of  commercial  fertilizers  they  should  be  so  applied  that  they 
will  be  incorporated  with  the  moist  soil.  The  time  of  application 
should  be  either  before  or  when  the  planting  is  done.  The  most 
common  method  of  application  is  through  the  fertilizer  attach- 
ment of  the  potato  planter.  Where  hand-planting  is  practiced, 
or  when  the  horse  planter  has  no  fertilizer  attachment,  the  fer- 
tilizer may  be  applied  Avith  a  grain  drill  having  a  fertilizer 
attachment.  A\nien  such  tools  are  not  available  the  fertilizer 
may  be  spread  by  hand  evenly  over  the  field  and  thoroughly 
disked  or  harrowed  into  the  soil.  When  the  fertilizer  is  applied 
primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  potato  crop  the  best  results  will 
be  secured  by  making  the  application  of  all  of  the  fertilizer  in 
the  furrow  or  drill.  If,  however,  it  is  desired  that  the  fertilizer 
benefit  the  following  crops  equally  with  the  potato  crop,  a  por- 
tion or  all  of  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied  evenly  through  the 
soil.     When  applied  in  the  furrow  the  residue  which  is  not  used 


grain  or  other  cro^DS  which  follow. 

Varieties. —  It  is  difficult  to  suggest  any  group  of  varieties  to 
be  raised  on  a  commercial  scale,  because  of  the  Avide  variation 
in  the  ada2:)tability  of  tubers  to  different  localities.  The  follow- 
ing list  may  be  a  guide  for  the  farm  garden.  The  varieties  are 
arranged  according  to  the  time  of  ripening. 

Beats  Them  All  (Mitchell's),  Beauty  of  Hebron,  Bliss  Tri- 
umph, Early  Ohio,  Early  Rose,  and  Irish  Cobbler.  The  first 
five  varieties  are  especially  adapted  to  the  North,  while  the 
Irish  Cobbler  does  well  both  north  and  south.  In  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States,  such  varieties  as  Green  Mountain, 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Rural  New  Yorker,  Carman  and  State  of 
Maine  are  grown,  while  in  the  South,  White  Star,  Lookout  Moun- 
tain, and  McCormick  are  prolific  producers. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  grower  write  to  his  State  Experiment 
Station  for  advice  on  the  varieties  suited  to  his  local  conditions, 
soil  and  climate. 

Seed. —  The  potato  seed  should  be  free  from  all  diseases.  The 
amount  of  seed  required  per  acre  varies  from  twelve  to  thirty 
bushels,  according  to  the  size  of  the  seed  pieces.  Two  to  three 
eyes  should  be  in  every  seed  piece.  If  the  seed  is  selected  in  the 
fall  for  planting  the  following  year,  the  potato  plant  should  show 
vigor,  health  and  a  high  yielding  quality.  Small  whole  potatoes 
from  a  healthy  i^lant  may  be  planted.  Do  not  plant  seed  that 
have  been  frosted.  Potato  tops  frozen  in  the  fall  do  not  injure 
the  tuber  providing  the  frost  does  not  reach  the  tuber  itself. 

Treating  seed. —  The  most  effective  treatment  against  scab  or 
black  scurf  is  corrosive  sublimate.  Dissolve  four  ounces  of 
corrosive  sublimate  in  hot  water  and  mix  with  thirty  gallons  of 
water.  Keep  solution  away  from  live  stock,  chickens,  etc.,  for 
it  is  deadly  poison.  Mix  the  solution  in  a  wooden  barrel  or 
vessel ;  never  use  metal.  Soak  the  seed  one  and  one-half  hours. 
Solution  may  be  used  for  three  to  four  treatments  of  the  tubers. 
Dry  the  potatoes  before  cutting  and  planting.  Do  not  allow  the 
seed  potato  to  come  in  contact  with  any  disease  after  treatment. 

Planting. —  The  time  of  planting  depends  on  the  condition  of 
the  soil,  temperature  and  market  demands.  Never  plant  in  a 
Avet,  cold  soil.  Usually,  the  rows  are  three  feet  apart  and  the 
seed  dropped  eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The  depth  of 
planting  depends  on  the  type  of  soil  and  the  uniformity  of  mois- 
ture available.  On  heaA^^  soil,  shallow  planting  is  practical  and 
the  cultivator  works  the  soil  up  to  the  plants  during  the  growing 


season,  fcieea  may  oe  loianiea  aeeper  in  iignt  son.  vvnere  mere 
are  more  than  five  acres  to  plant,  use  a  machine.  Of  the  two 
types  g-enerally  used  (picker  jilanter  and  i)latforni  type),  the 
notched-platform  is  considered  the  best. 

In  hand-planting,  draw  a  furrow  with  the  plow,  drop  the  seed 
and  cover  by  dragging  or  with  a  shallow  ])low  furrow. 

/I 


Fig.  33. — aSTotched-platform  potato  planter.  A,  hopper  carrying  cut  sets; 
B,  notched  platform;  E,  furrow  oi)ener;  D,  drop  spout;  C,  covering  disks. 
Two  operators  can  plant  nearly  all  the  hills — aljout  !).j  per  cent  efficient. 
After  Utah  Agri  College. 

Cultivation. —  Before  planting,  harrow  the  land  thoroughly  in 
order  to  destroy  all  Aveed  seedlings.  Slant  the  harrow  teeth  hack 
and  cultivate  once  after  tubers  are  planted,  especially  if  the  soil 
has  become  a  little  crusted  from  rains.  After  sprouts  appear 
cultivate    deeply,    repeat    later    with    a    shallow    cultivation. 


Fig.  34. — Diagram  of  elevator  potato  digger.  A,  blade  which  passes  under  hills; 
B,  elevator  rods;  C,  spring  release  for  throwing  off  vines;  D,  device  for 
separating  very  small  and  vci-y  large  tubers  from  medium-sized  ones. — Utah 
Experiment  Station. 


IIG  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Cultivate  often  during  the  growing  season.  After  the  plants 
reach  a  considerable  size,  winged  shovels  may  replace  the  rear 
teeth  of  the  cultivator  and  thus  throw  the  soil  towards  the  plant. 
Keep  down  weeds  throughout  the  season. 

Harvesting. — AVhere  the  i3otatoes  are  gro^^^l  on  a  large  acre- 
age, the  potato  digger,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  is  used.  A  small 
digger  mtli  bars  at  the  back,  which  jerks  up  and  down  with  small 
arm  beneath,  is  recommended  for  the  small  farmer,  rather  than 
the  plow.  Allow  the  soil  and  moisture  to  dry  from  the  skin 
before  picking  and  sacking.  Do  not  allow  the  tubers  to  be 
exposed  to  the  sun  for  long.  Harvest  early  varieties  when  large 
enough  to  eat;  late  varieties,  after  allowing  the  vines  to  ripen. 
Grading.—  U.  S.  Grade  1 : 

Round  varieties  graded  over  one  and  seven- 
eighths-inch  screen. 
Long  varieties  graded  over  one  and  three- 
quarters-inch  screen. 
U.  S.  Grade  2: 

All  potatoes  grading  over  one  and  one-half- 
inch  screen. 
Storing. —  Average  storage  temi:)erature  forty-five  degrees  to 
fifty-five  degrees  F.  The  air  should  be  free  from  odors,  and 
should  have  good  ventilation.  The  freezing  point  of  the  potato 
is  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  degrees  F.  Potatoes  may  be  stored 
in  a  pit,  well-drained  and  ventilated.  For  special  information  on 
storage,  send  for  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  847,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Fig.  35. — Colorado  beetle  or 

leaf;  b.  larva  that  eats  the  leaves;  c.  pupa 
feet  insect;  e.  wing-cover;  /.  leg. 


r 

egg  on  underside  of 
d.  imago  or  per- 


POTATOES 


117 


FlU.  30. —  Potato  disease  on  the  leaves.- 
After  Jonk. 

Common  Insects 


INSECTS 

CONTROL 

KEMARKS 

Totato-beetle 

Spray,  Arsenate  of  Lead, 
Paris  Green 

Both  adult  and  larva  eat  foliage 
Spray  as  soon  as  the  larva?  appear 

Flea-beetle 

Repelled      bv      Bordeaux- 
Mixture 

l]ats  small  holes  in  leaves.  Found 
mostly  on  under  side  of  leaf.  This 
small"  black  insect  lives  on  bitter- 
sweet, horse-nettles,  jimson  weed 
and  ground  cherry.  Destroys  weeds 

Blister-beetle 

Spray,  Arsenate  of  Lead 

Controlled  when  spraying  for  com- 
mon potato  beetle 

Stalk  Aveevil 

Burn  old  stalks 

Found  mostly  in  the  south  central 
States.  An  ash-gray  beetle,  the 
white  grub  of  which  bores  in  the 
stalk 

INIay-beetles 

Plow  sod  in  fall 

Leave  the  land  in  the  rough  over 
winter  and  destroy  the  white  grub 

Mire  worms 

Fall  plowincr 

Feeds  on  the  roots  and  burrows 
holes  in  the  tuber 

118  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


POTATOES 


119 


Common  Diseases 


DISEASE 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Early  blight 

Spray,     Bordeaux     Mix- 
ture.  Burn  dead  leaves 
after  harvesting  crop 

This  fungus  causes  dark  brown 
spots  on  leaves.  Tlie  concentric 
rings  increase  and  destroy  the 
entire  leaf.  Spray  early  in  the 
season   and   repeat  several  times 

Late  blight 

Spray,  Bordeaux,  several 
times   during    summer 
and  before  rains 

Leaves  turn  brown  and  die;  the 
stem  and  tuber  may  be  affected 

Dry  rot 

Use     clean     seed.        No 
remedy 

Disease  lives  in  the  soil;  therefore, 
do  not  plant  potatoes  in  the  same 
soil  in  whicli  disease  M'as  dis- 
covered 

Scab 

See  seed  treatment 

Disease  lives  over  winter  on  tuber 

Bacterial  wilt 

Remove    and    burn    dis- 
eased plants 

Stems  and  leaves  turn  brown, 
shrivel  and  finallv  blacken 

CULTURE  OF  THE  SWEET  POTATO 

Bt  a.  G.  Smith,  Jr.,  B.S.' 

The  sweet  potato  belongs  naturally  to  warm  climates,  since 
it  is  of  tropical  origin.  It  is  now  so  universally  cultivated  that 
it  has  become  a  part  of  the  daily  food  of  millions  in  the  Far 
East,  on  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and  throughout  tropical  South 
America.  In  our  own  great  country,  it  has  been  a  favorite 
vegetable  for  centuries. 

In  the  tropics  the  sweet  potato  grows  as  a  perennial  where  it 
sometimes  blossoms  and  produces  seeds.  In  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  however,  where  the  potato  is  cultivated,  it  is 
handled  as  an  annual  and  rarely  every  produces  seeds. 

A  warm,  sunny  climate  and  a  long  growing  season  are  two  of 
the  essential  requirements  which  Bailey  gives  for  successful 
sweet  potato  culture.  AVliile  such  ideal  conditions  in  the  United 
States  are  found  chiefly  in  the  southern  and  southeastern  sec- 
tions, sweet  potatoes  are  grown  profitably  as  far  north  as  New 
Jersey  and  Central  Illinois  where  soil  conditions  are  suitable. 

Soil. —  The  soil  should  be  well  drained,  loose,  and  warm. 
Sweet  potatoes  will  grow  on  a  variety  of  soil  types  but  tubers 

*  Instructor  in  Horticulture,  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. 


120  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


of  the  highest  quality  may  be  expected  from  the  sandy  or  sandy 
loam  soils.  Fairly  heavy  clay  soils  may  give  a  satisfactory  yield, 
but  in  appearance,  flavor,  and  keeping  qualities,  the  potatoes 
are  inferior  to  those  produced  on  lighter  soils.  Light  soils,  as  a 
rule,  are  better  drained,  more  easily  tilled,  and  lessen  the  cost 
of  harvesting  the  crop.  Potatoes  grown  on  light  soils  have  less 
dirt  clinging  to  them  than  those  grown  on  clay  soils. 

Stucky  states  that  when  a  friable  sandy  loam  soil  is  properly 
fertilized  and  cultivated  it  gives  a  larger  yield  and  a  better  grade 
of  tubers  than  clay  soils. 


Fig.  38. — Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the  areas  adapted  to  the  growing 
of  sweet  potatoes.  The  heavy  line  represents  the  northern  limits  of  sweet- 
potato  production  for  home  use.  The  shaded  portion  indicates  the  sections 
adapted  to  the  commercial  growing  of  sweet  potatoes. —  U.  8.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

Johnson  and  Rosa  found  that  stiff,  clay  soils  produced 
excessive  growth  of  vine,  while  the  tubers  were  long,  irregular, 
rough  and  inclined  to  be  somewhat  watery. 

Garcia  writes  that  sweet  potatoes  do  better  in  a  sandy  loam 
than  in  an  adobe  soil,  and  adds  that  w^hile  the  best  results  may 
be  had  from  a  loam  which  is  rich  and  conserves  moisture  well, 
very  sandy  soils  produce  low  yields. 

Rotation. —  Sweet  potatoes  should  not  be  grown  on  the  same 
piece  of  ground  year  after  year.  Even  if  the  fertility  of  the  soil 
is  maintained  by  leaving  the  vines  and  adding  other  plant  food, 
the  danger  of  diseases,  which  may  live  over  in  the  soil,  becomes 
too  great.  The  sweet  potato  responds  as  readily  to  intelligent 
crop  rotation  as  any  of  our  staple  crops.    The  following  is  sug- 


POTATOES  121 

gested  by  Johnson  and  Rosa  for  Eastern  Virginia  conditions: 
Sweet  potatoes,  followed  by  crimson  clover  or  rye ;  followed  by 
early  potatoes  with  late  corn  between  the  rows  and  rye  or  cow- 
peas  seeded  between  the  corn  at  last  cultivation;  followed  by 
potatoes  or  any  truck  crop;  followed  by  sweet  potatoes.  For 
Arkansas  conditions,  AVicks  suggests  the  following  three-year 
rotation:  After  the  sweet  potatoes  are  taken  off,  hogs  are 
turned  on  to  pick  roots,  etc.  The  land  is  then  ploAved  and  a  crop 
of  corn  with  cowpeas  betAveen  the  rows  is  put  in.  This  is  fol- 
lowed by  winter  oats,  which,  in  turn,  are  followed  by  spring 
cowpeas  sown  broadcast.  The  peas  are  pastured  down  or  cut 
and  followed  by  sweet  potatoes.  Such  rotations  would  leave 
the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for  sweet  potatoes.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  plow  under  heavy  crops  of  rye  or  clover  just 
before  the  plants  are  transplanted  to  the  field. 

Preparation  of  the  soil. — The  soil  should  be  carefully  prepared 
before  setting  the  plants.  It  is  a  fatal  mistake  to  attempt  to 
make  the  cultivation  of  the  sweet  potato  during  the  growing 
season  take  the  place  of  the  "tillage  of  preparation."  It  is 
necessary  to  pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly  for  the  best  results. 
Stucky  suggests  that  this  may  be  done  best  by  breaking  the 
land  eight  or  nine  inches  deep  Avith  a  two-horse  disc  i^low  and 
following  this  mth  a  disc  harrow. 

About  a  week  before  planting,  the  land  should  be  thrown  into 
narrow  ridges,  about  three  or  four  feet  apart,  liy  means  of  a 
one-horse  plow  or  "sweep."  At  planting  time  these  ridges  are 
partly  leveled  by  dragging  a  small  log,  or  any  home-made  board 
scraper,  down  the  rows,  leaving  a  smooth,  moist  surface  for  the 
plants. 

Sweet  potatoes  demand  a  soil  which  carries  a  moderate 
amount  of  organic  matter.  This  may  be  supplied  in  sufficient 
quantity  by  turning  under  cover  crops,  as  previously  suggested, 
or  by  the  use  of  manures  and  composts.  Where  stable  manure 
is  used  it  should  be  applied  to  the  crop  preceding  the  sweet 
potatoes.  Well-rotted  composts  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of 
fifty  to  seventy-five  tons  per  acre  during  the  winter  preceding 
planting. 

Stable  manure,  when  applied  alone  to  the  soil  in  large 
quantities,  according  to  Stuckey,*  gave  a  heaw  yield  of  vines 
and  a  heaA^^  yield  of  tubers.  The  potatoes,  however,  were  rough 
and  poor  in  quality. 

Commercial  fertilizers. —  These  fertilizers  may  be  used  very 
profitably  on  sweet  potatoes.    However,  one  should  be  careful 


122  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

to  provide  the  j^lant  foods  in  as  nearly  the  proper  2:)roportion  as 
IDOSsible. 

According  to  Keitt  the  sweet  potato  removes  a  comparatively 
small  amount  of  phosphorus,  a  larger  amount  of  nitrogen,  and 
a  very  large  amount  of  potash  from  the  soil.  The  same  investi- 
gator found  the  following  fertilizer  mixture  satisfactory  on 
South  Carolina  soils,  when  applied  at  the  rate  of  five  hundred 
jiounds  per  acre : 

200  pounds  sulphate  of  potash. 

100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda. 

400  i:)Ounds  sixteen  per  cent  acid  phosphate. 

100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  when  vines  are  eighteen  inches 
long. 

Stuckey,  who  conducted  extensive  experiments  with  sweet 
potatoes  ,  obtained  good  results  on  Georgia  soils  by  using  the 
following  mixture  at  the  rate  of  1,040  pounds  per  acre : 

1,000  joounds  acid  phosphate. 
250  pounds  nitrate  of  soda. 
675  iDOunds  cottonseed  meal. 
300  pounds  sulphate  of  potash. 

Duggar  and  Williamson  show  conclusively  that  in  many 
Alabama  soils  better  results  may  be  obtained  by  heavier  appli- 
cations of  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  and  lighter  applications 
of  potash. 

From  experiments  conducted  at  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station,  Durst  concludes  that  only  manure  or  steamed  bone 
applied  under  the  ridge  is  likely  to  give  any  material  increase  in 
the  net  value  of  the  crop,  after  deducting  the  cost  of  the 
fertilizer. 

The  following  formula  is  given  by  Johnson  and  Rosa,  who 
state  that  it  has  been  popular  among  Virginia  growlers  during 
the  potash  famine  and  has  given  extremely  good  results : 

4  per  cent  ammonia. 

8  per  cent  acid  phosphate. 

The  amounts  of  fertilizers  to  be  used  must  necessarily  vary 
under  different  conditions,  but  it  would  be  safe  to  use  from  three 
hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  on  all  soils  which  have  an 
abundance  of  organic  matter  and  increase  this  to  one  thousand 
pounds  or  more  on  all  thin  soils  that  are  lacking  in  organic 
matter.  Where  heavy  applications  are  used,  it  is  best  to  broad- 
cast a  part  of  the  fertilizer  and  drill  the  remainder  in  the  row. 

Experiments,  conducted  to  determine  the  best  form  of 
nitrogen  and  potash  for  sweet  potatoes,  show  conflicting  results. 


POTATOES 


123 


Keitt  found  cottonseed  meal  slightly  snioerior  to  nitrate  of 
soda  as  a  source  of  nitrogen,  while  Vorhees  obtained  much 
better  results  from  nitrate  of  soda  than  from  cottonseed  meal. 

Shiver  concludes  that  sulphate  of  potash  is  apt  to  give  larger 
yields  than  muriate,  although  either  will  aid  in  better  production, 

Stuckey's  experiments  show  that  while  nitrogenous  fertilizers 
gave  heavy  yields  of  vines,  they  may  or  may  not  give  large  yields 


Fig. 


I. —  Sweet-potato   slips   ready  to   be  drawn. 
Truck  Exp.  Sfalioii, 'Bulletin  Id. 


-Virginia 


of  tubers.  In  the  same  work  it  was  found  that  acid  j^hosphate 
alone  did  not  increase  the  yield  of  potatoes. 

Varieties.^  Varieties  Avhich  gave  the  largest  yields  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  desirable  for  table  use,  and  are  usually  grown  for 
stock  feeding.  In  the  north,  the  sweet  potato  is  usually  boiled, 
and  for  this  reason  a  variety  high  in  starch  is  more  in  demand 
than  the  sugarv-fleshed  varieties,  which  are  used  so  generallv  in 
the  South. 

Two  varieties  of  the  dry  or  mealy  type  are  Big  Stem  Jersey 
and  Yellow  Jersey.  The  soft  flesh  sorts,  Avhich  are  more  popular 
in  the  South,  are  Nancy  Hall,  Triumph,  Porto  Rico,  and  Dooley 
Yam.  Bermuda  is  the  best  representative  of  the  larger  type 
which  is  grown  exclusively  for  livestock. 


124  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Propagation. —  Sweet  potatoes  are  usually  propagated  by 
means  of  rooted  plants  or  "slips"  from  the  tubers,  and  by  cut- 
tings from  the  vines.  In  parts  of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas 
the  early  vines  may  be  planted  for  a  crop  of  small  potatoes  to 
be  used  for  seed.  In  the  more  southern  states  the  main  crop  is 
produced  from  the  vine  cuttings. 

If  an  early  crop  of  potatoes  is  desired  the  slips  should  be 
planted  in  the  field  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past.  It  is 
necessary  in  such  a  case  to  order  the  plants  from  a  more  south- 
ern latitude,  where  the  j^lants  may  be  grown  in  the  open  soil; 
or  if  home-grown  plants  are  desired,  the  seed  tubers  should  be 
bedded  in  hotbeds  where  earl}^  sprouting  may  be  forced  and  pro- 
tection against  frost  afforded.  As  a  general  rule,  home-grown 
I)lants  will  make  more  satisfactory  yields  than  those  shipped 
from  a  distance. 

Hotbeds  of  the  ordinary  types  may  be  used  for  bedding  the 
tubers.  These  beds  are  usually  six  feet  wide  and  as  long  as 
desired,  in  order  that  the  standard  sash,  which  is  three  by  six 
feet,  may  be  used.  In  addition  to  the  heat  from  the  sun's  rays, 
hot-beds  are  usually  supplied  with  artificial  heat,  which  may  be 
obtained  from  fermenting  horse  manure  or  from  heated  pipes 
or  flues. 

In  preparing  the  hotbed  for  the  seed  a  layer  of  fresh  horse 
manure  should  be  placed  in  the  bed  to  a  depth  of  eight  to  ten 
inches  after  it  is  well  packed.  The  manure  should  be  thoroughly 
chopped  and  mixed  in  order  that  it  may  be  of  uniform  texture 
throughout.  If  it  is  dry,  sprinkle  "\vith  water  to  make  it  pack 
evenly.  A  layer  of  good  sandy  soil  three  inches  deep  should 
then  be  spread  over  the  manure.  Use  pure  sand  if  it  can  be 
secured. 

After  preparing  the  bed,  cover  with  the  sash  and  allow  the 
bed  to  heat  for  a  few  days  before  bedding  the  potatoes. 

The  tubers  are  pressed  down  sidewise  in  the  soil,  far  enough 
apart  to  prevent  touching,  and  are  then  covered  with  two  or 
three  inches  of  loose,  sandy  soil.  The  space  required  to  plant  a 
given  quantity  of  sweet  potatoes  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
tubers.  More  space  is  needed  for  a  bushel  of  smalh  tubers  than 
for  the  same  measure  of  large  ones.  A  bed  six  by  thirty  feet 
should  give  enough  plants  for  one  acre. 

The  bed  should  be  watered  carefully  in  order  tliat  it  might 
not  become  saturated  nor  allowed  to  get  dry.  Keep  the  sash  on 
the  beds  during  cold  weather  and  ventilate  on  "warm  days  by 
propping  up  one  end  of  the  sash. 


POTATOES 


125 


Where  a  very  early  crop  is  desired,  bed  the  seed  tubers  six 
weeks  before  the  last  spring  frost  is  expected.  When  the  slips 
are  drawn  from  the  bed,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  pull  the 
mother-tuber  out  of  the  soil.  The  strong  plants,  Avhich  are  six 
or  eight  inches  long,  should  be  used  and  the  smaller  ones  left 
for  further  growth.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  water  the  bed  after  each 
drawing,  and  if  this  is  done  plants  may  be  drawn  several  times 
at  intervals  of  six  or  eight  days.  Do  not  alloAV  the  roots  to  dry 
after  the  plants  are  drawn.  Dip  the  roots  in  mud  or  pack  under 
damp  moss  or  cloth  until  transplanted. 

Time  of  transplanting. —  For  earliest  sweet  potatoes  plant  as 
soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past.  This  is  practiced  by  many  mar- 
ket gardeners  wlio  obtain  high  prices  for  their  first  tubers.    The 


Fig.  40. — -Sweet-potato  tuber  and  siirouts. — Virginia  Truck  Exp.  Staiioiu  Bulhtiii  19. 

largest  yields  are  usually  obtained  from  plantings  made  after 
the  soil  becomes  thoroughly  Avarm.  Stuckey^  found  that  for 
Georgia  conditions  slips  planted  from  IMay  16  to  June  11  gave 
larger  yields  than  those  planted  earlier  or  later. 

Setting  in  the  field. —  It  is  best  to  set  the  plants  when  the  soil 
contains  an  abundance  of  moisture.  If  the  soil  is  wet  do  not 
puddle  it  by  pressing  too  hard  next  to  the  slip.  Water  the  plants 
where  the  ground  is  very  dry.  Garcia  states  that  in  the  irri- 
gated sections  of  New  Mexico  most  growers  transplant  the  slips 


126  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


in  the  dry  earth  and  irrigate  immediately  after  transplanting. 
A  week  following  the  date  of  transplanting  another  irrigation  is 
given.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced  it  is  better  to  plant  on  one 
side  of  the  ridge  rather  than  on  top  or  on  both  sides. 

Distances  for  planting  sweet 
potatoes  vary  with  different 
varieties  and  soils.    The  aver- 


half  feet  between  rows  and 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the 
row.  The  vineless  varieties, 
which  are  rather  light  bear- 
ers, may  be  planted  closer  to- 
gether. 

Cultivation. —  The  cultiva- 
tion of  the  sweet  potato  is  easy 
or  difficult  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  texture  of  the  land  and 
its  freedom  from  weeds.  The 
essential  j^oints  in  the  cultiva- 
tion are  to  keep  down  weeds, 
to  conserve  moisture,  and  to 
retain  the  ridges  intact.  Spe- 
cial tools  are  provided  for  the 
cultivation  of  this  crop,  but 
any  implement  in  common  use 
for  white  potatoes  and  cotton 
may  be  used  successfully  for 
sweet  potatoes. 

Continue  cultivation  until 
the  vines  almost  cover  the 
ground.  Remove  Aveeds  on  the 
ridge  with  a  hand  hoe. 

Experiments  conducted  in 
several  states  to  test  the  value 
of  pruning  and  uprooting  sweet 
potato  vines  show  conclusively 
that  the  practice  cuts  down  the 
yield  of  tubers. 

Harvesting. — Sweet  potatoes 
should  be  dug  before  the  vines 
are  killed  by  frost.  In  trucking 
sections  they  are  often  dug  as 


Fig.   41.— Black-rot   of   sweet    putatc- 
Farmcrs  Btdlct'm  ll.'i. 


POTATOES 


127 


soon  as  the  earliest  tubers  are  large  enough  for  market.    Such 

early  harvesting  may  cut  down  the  yield  very  materially,  but 

the  profit  may  be  greater  due  to  the  high  price  for  early  "truck. 

The  digging  may  be 

done     by     using     a 

sweet  potato  digger 

which    is    equipi^ed 

with  rolling  coulters 

to  cut  the  vines,  or 

the  vines  may  be  cut 

with  a  hand  blade 

and     an      ordinary 

plow   used   to   turn 

the  tubers  out. 

Sweet  jDotatoes 
should  be  allowed  to 
dry  in  the  field  for 
a  few  hours  before 
being  hauled  to  the 
place  of  storage.  It 
is  best  to  provide 
slatted  crates  of 
convenient  size  in 
which  to  keep  the 
]iotatoes  throughout 
the  storage  period. 
The  tubers  are  put 
in  the  crates  in  the 
field.  AVhere  such 
crates  are  not  pro- 
vided it  is  best  to 
use  smooth  contain- 
ers, such  as  buckets 
or  pans,  in  prefer- 
ence to  baskets  of 
aii}^  description  for 
picking  up  the  pota- 
toes. The  potatoes 
should  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  scratching 
and  bruising  the  skins. 

Storage. — The  keeping  of  sweet  potatoes  is  one  of  the  most 
important  items  in  their  culture.  Were  the  difficulty  along  this 
line  removed  the  area  planted  would  be  greatly  increased. 


Fig.  -12.— Soft 


sweet  potato. — Fanncr.9  Bullc- 
i'tii  7J.'f. 


128  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


The  old  practice  of  storing  sweet  potatoes  in  pits  and  care- 
lessly made  sheds  resulted  in  the  loss  of  a  large  loercentage  of 
the  annual  crop.  The  development  of  the  modern  types  of  sweet 
potato  storage  houses  has  decreased  the  annual  loss  to  a  mini- 
mum. AVhile  it  is  impossible  in  this 
discussion  to  give  fully  the  best 
methods  of  keeping  sweet  potatoes, 
it  would  not  be  complete  without 
outlining  briefly  some  of  the  essen- 
tial features  of  successful  sweet 
potato  storage. 

Cure  the  tubers  at  a  temperature 

of  about  eighty-five  degrees  F.  for 

ten  days  in  order  that  they  may  be 

.^^  "^W^   /'     sufficiently  dried  to  keep.     During 

^^■ftA-^,,.,>«».-,,fc^w         this  period  much  of  the  starch  is 

^^^^m  m.M         changed   into    sugar.     While    this 

^Hr  ■  W^  drying  is  taking  place  ample  ven- 

^^  W  tilation  should  be  provided.     Fol- 

"  ^  lowing  the  drying  period  a  uniform 

temperature  of  fifty-five  degrees  F. 

should  be  maintained. 

Valuable  literature  on  the  sub- 
ject of  sweet  potato  storage  may 
be  obtained  free  of  charge  from 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  and  from  the  various 
state  experiment  stations. 

Insects  and  diseases. —  The  root 
borer  or  weevil  is  the  worst  insect 
enemy  of  the  sweet  potato.  It  is 
found  in  tropical  sections  and  in 
several  of  the  Gulf  states.  The  only 
means  of  checking  it  seem  to  be 
through  the  destruction  of  all  in- 
fested potatoes  and  systematic  ro- 
tation. 

Several  fungous  diseases  occur  on  sweet  potatoes  and  when 
present  may  cause  heavy  losses  in  the  field  or  during  the  storage 
period.  Among  these  are  black  rot,  stem  rot,  soft  rot,  and  dry 
rot.  The  eight  rules,  summarized  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  714, 
to  save  sweet  potatoes  from  fungous  diseases  are  as  follows : 
Select  seeds  free  from  rots  or  spots  of  any  kind. 


Fig.    43. —  Sweet-potato   plant    af 
fected  by  black-rot. — Farmers 
Bulletin  11.',. 


POTATOES  129 

Treat  seed  with  a  solution  of  bichloride  ofc"  mercury  (1  oz.  in 
8  gal.  of  HoO)  for  ten  minutes. 

Keplace  old  soil  in  seed  bed  with  new  soil,  or  preferably  sand, 
from  a  high  place  in  the  woods  or  from  where  sweet  potatoes 
have  not  been  grow^i. 

After  removing  old  soil  it  is  a  good  plan  to  disinfect  this  bed 
with  a  formalin  solution  (1  pint  Formalin  to  25  gal.  HoO). 

Move  the  bed  every  year  if  possible. 

Do  not  use  manure  in  beds  or  fields  from  stock  to  which  sweet 
potatoes  have  been  fed  unless  the  potatoes  were  previously 
cooked. 

Burn  diseased  plants. 

Eotate  crops. 


CHAPTER   VI 

TOBACCO 
By  Dr.  W.  W.  Garner,  Ph.D.* 

Kinds  of  tobacco  grown  and  varieties  of  seed  used. — The 

tobacco  iDlant  will  thrive  under  a  wide  range  of  soil  and  climatic 
conditions,  but  only  Avhen  grown  on  proper  types  of  soil  and 
under  proper  conditions  of  climate  will  the  cured  leaf  have  the 
necessary  j)roperties  for  commercial  use.  Several  distinct  t3^pes 
of  tobacco  are  grown  commercially,  each  adapted  to  certain  uses 
and  requiring  for  successful  production  special  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  and  cultural  methods.  The  trade  can  absorb  only  cer- 
tain fairly  definite  quantities  of  each  type  at  prices  which  are 
profitable  to  the  grower.  For  these  reasons  tobacco  culture  has 
become  a  highly  specialized  farming  enterprise  and  is  limited 
to  Avell-defined  areas.  Generally  speaking,  it  will  not  pay  the 
farmer  to  try  to  grow  tobacco  commercially  outside  of  these 
recognized  areas. 

The  four  chief  commercial  types  of  tobacco  are  as  folloAvs: 

(1)  Cigar  leaf,  used  almost  exclusively  for  the  domestic  manu- 
facture of  cigars  and  grown  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  of  New 
England,  Lancaster  and  adjoining  counties  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Miami  Valley  of  southwestern  Ohio,  and  southern  Wisconsin; 

(2)  Flue-cured  or  Yellotv  tobacco,  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
cigarettes,  smoking  and  chewing  tobacco  and  for  export  are 
grown  in  southern  Virginia,  in  North  Carolina  and  in  South 
Carolina;  (3)  White  Burley,  used  for  the  manufacture  of  chew- 
ing and  smoking  tobaccos  and  grown  in  north  central  Kentucky 
and  southern  Ohio;  (4)  Darh  Fire-cured  Shipping,  used  for 
export  and  for  snuff  and  gro\\ai  in  western  Kentucky,  adjoining 
counties  of  Tennessee,  and  in  central  Virginia.  Other  types  of 
importance  are  the  Dark  Air -cured  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
the  Virginia  Sun-cured,  and  the  Maryland  Export.  For  grow- 
ing cigar  leaf  the  Connecticut  Broadleaf,  Havana  Seed,  and 
Cuban  varieties  are  used  in  New  England ;  Pennsylvania  Broad- 
leaf  in  the  Lancaster  district ;  Ohio  Seedleaf  and  Ziimner  Span- 
ish in  the  Miami  district;  Comstock  Spanish  and  Havana  Seed 

'  Tobacco  expert, 

130 


TOBACCO 


131 


in  AVisconsin.  The  "White  Burley  is  a  distinct  variety.  In  Mary- 
land the  Maryland  Broadleaf  and  Xarrowleaf  varieties  are 
grown.  For  the  flue-cured  and  the  dark  fire-cured  and  air-cured 
types  various  suhvarieties  of  Orinoco  and  Pryor  are  grown. 

Soils  and  soil  management. —  Both  the  physical  and  the  chem- 
ical j^i'operties  of  tlie  soil  greatly  affect  the  properties  of  the 
tobacco  i^roduced.  In  all  cases  thorough  drainage  is  essential 
to  success.     The  cigar  tobacco  of  the  Connecticut  Valley,  the 


Fir,.  44. —  Crop  of  cigar  tobacco  which  has  been  topped  and  has  reached  Ibc  pKijjcr 
stage  for  harvesting. 

tyi^ical  flue-cured  tobacco  of  Virginia  and  tlie  Carolinas,  and 
Maryland  tobacco  are  grown  on  light  sandy  and  sandy  loam 
soils  which  are  naturally  rather  infertile.  The  subsoil  also  is 
rather  open  and  sandy  except  in  the  Piedmont  section  of  the 
flue-cured  district,  where  the  subsoil  is  more  clayey.  The 
tobacco  soils  of  Wisconsin  are  sandy  loams,  light  clay  loams,  and 
dark  "prairie"  loams;  those  of  Pennsylvania  are  fine  loams  of 
limestone  origin,  and  those  of  the  Ohio  cigar  tobacco  district 
are  clay  loams.  The  typical  Burley  soils  are  the  fertile  silty 
loams  of  phosphatic  limestone  origin  in  the  Blue  Grass  regioo 
of  Kentuckv  and  in  southern  Ohio,    The  dark  fire-cured  and  air- 


132  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


cured  tobaccos  are  grown  on  heavy  brownish  or  reddish-colored 
soils  containing  rather  high  percentages  of  clay  or  silt.  In  Penn- 
sylvania tobacco  is  grown  in  systematic  rotation  with  wheat, 
grass,  and  clover.  In  southern  districts  the  practice  of  resting 
the  land  for  a  time  after  growing  one  or  more  crops  of  tobacco 

has  been  extensively  followed, 
while  in  New  England,  par- 
ticularly, the  common  prac- 
tice has  been  to  grow  tobacco 
continuously  on  the  same 
land.  As  a  rule,  rotation  of 
tobacco  with  other  crops  is 
desirable.  Under  some  cir- 
cumstances, however,  best  re- 
sults cannot  be  had  by  grow- 
ing tobacco  after  legumes. 

Fertilizers. — Except  where 
the  soil  is  alread}^  fertile  lib- 
eral fertilizing  of  the  tobacco 
crop  is  usually  profitable.  As 
a  rule,  liming  the  soil  is  less 
necessary  for  tobacco  than 
for  many  other  crops.  In  the 
cigar  tobacco  districts  barn 
manure  is  extensively  used. 
In  the  Connecticut  Valley  ap- 
plications of  a  ton  or  more 
per  acre  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers composed  of  such  ma- 
terials as  cottonseed  meal, 
ground  fish,  quickly  available 
phosphates  and  sulphate  or 
carbonate  of  potash  also  are 
commonly  used.  For  cigar 
tobaccos  fertilizers  containing  muriate  of  potash  should  not 
be  used.  In  the  flue-cured  district  commercial  fertilizers  are 
necessary  and  an  average  application  consists  of  eight  hun- 
dred pounds  per  acre  of  a  mixture  containing  three  per  cent 
each  of  nitrogen  and  potash  and  eight  per  cent  available  phos- 
phoric acid.  Fertilizers  of  about  the  same  composition  are  used 
for  the  dark  fire-cured  and  air-cured  tobaccos,  but  the  aver- 
age rate  of  application  is  somewhat  less.  Fertilizers  are  not 
required  in  the  Burley  district. 


Fig.  45. — Tobacco  plant,  with  paper  bag 
placed  over  the  seed  head  to  prevent 
mixing  or  crossing  with  other  varie- 
ties. 


TOBACCO 


133 


The  seed  bed. — The  tobacco  seed  is  quite  small  and  the  young 
seedling  is  very  sensitive  to  excessive  heat  or  drought  so  that  it 
is  necessary  to  develop  the  young  plant  from  the  seed  in  a  cold 
frame  until  it  is  large  enough  for  transplanting  to  the  field.  The 
soil  for  the  seed  bed  should  be  open  and  mellow,  containing  suf- 
ficient organic  matter  to  retain  moisture  and  to  prevent  baking 
and  must  be  well  drained.  Unless  virgin  soil  in  the  woods  is 
available,  the  surface  should  be  sterilized  by  using  surface  fires^ 
or  by  steaming.  After  the  soil  has  been  brought  to  a  fine  tilth 
the  seed  are  sown  evenly,  using  a  tablespoonful  for  one  hundred 
square  yards  of  seed  bed  and  covered  vvry  lujhtly.     Twenty 


I    .m 


Fu;.  4(). —  Tobacco  curing  barn  in  Kentucky,  of  the  type  used  for  air-curing. 

square  yards  of  seed  bed  should  furnish  sufficient  plants  for 
setting  one  acre.  The  seed  bed  should  be  covered  with  glass  or 
cheese  cloth  supported  by  a  frame  of  boards  or  logs.  The  plants 
are  ready  for  the  field  when  three  to  five  inches  high,  that  is,  six 
to  ten  weeks  after  planting.  Seed  beds  are  planted  in  February 
in  the  South,  up  to  and  through  April  in  northern  districts. 

Transplanting  and  cultivation. — The  land  should  be  prepared 
about  the  same  as  for  corn,  the  rows  being  spaced  three  to  four 
feet  apart.  The  seedlings  should  be  pulled  from  the  bed  and 
transplanted  when  the  soil  is  quite  moist,  if  possible,  for  other- 
wise watering  may  be  necessary.  For  considerable  acreages  on 
smooth  land  the  machine  transplanter  should  be  used,  other-\dse 


134  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

setting  by  hand  is  practiced.  The  plants  are  spaced  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  apart  in  a  row  in  the  cigar  tobacco  and 
Burley  districts  and  two  and  one-half  to  four  feet  elsewhere. 
Clean  and  shallow  cultivation  should  be  practiced.  When  the 
flow^er  head  appears  this  should  be  broken  out  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  the  develoiDUient  of  the  lower  leaves.  In  carrying 
out  the  process  of  "topping"  the  number  of  leaves  left  on  the 
plant  varies  with  the  type  of  tobacco  produced.  Suckers  or 
branches  apiiearing  in  the  leaf  axils  must  also  be  broken  out. 

Harvesting  and  curing. —  Sixty  to  ninety  days  after  trans- 
planting the  tobacco  will  be  ripe,  as  indicated  by  a  change  of  the 
deep  green  color  of  the  leaf  to  a  lighter  shade,  with  the  appear- 
ance of  yellowish  green  flecks  on  the  surface  and  a  tendency  for 
the  leaf  to  become  brittle.  Harvesting  is  done  either  by  cutting 
off  the  stalk  near  the  ground  or  by  plucking  the  leaves  at  intervals 
as  they  ripen,  beginning  at  the  base  of  the  plant.  The  leaves 
alone  or  the  stalks  bearing  the  leaves,  as  the  case  may  be,  are 
attached  to  sticks  by  means  of  strings,  hooks  or  otherwise,  and 
hung  up  in  the  specially  constructed  barn  for  curing.  In  all 
methods  of  curing  the  rate  of  drying  must  be  carefully  regulated. 
In  flue-curing  heat  is  applied  by  means  of  a  furnace  and  pipes 
extending  through  the  barn.  In  ''fire-curing"  slow  open  fires 
are  maintained  on  the  earthen  floor  of  the  barn,  the  tobacco 
being  thus  exposed  to  the  smoke  from  the  fires.  Air-curing,  in 
which  no  artificial  heat  is  used,  is  employed  in  the  cigar  tobacco, 
Burley,  and  certain  other  districts.  In  air-curing  it  is  essential 
that  effective  ventilation  be  provided.  Flue-curing  requires 
three  to  five  days,  while  air-curing  requires  four  to  ten  weeks. 
After  curing  is  completed,  as  indicated  by  the  midrib  of  the  leaf 
becoming  dry  and  brittle  for  its  whole  length,  the  tobacco  is 
removed  from  the  barn  at  a  time  when  sufficient  moisture  has 
been  absorbed  from  the  air  by  the  leaf  to  soften  it  so  that  it  may 
be  handled  without  breaking.  The  leaves  are  assorted  into 
grades  according  to  size,  color,  freedom  from  blemishes,  etc., 
and  are  then  tied  into  small  "hands"  or  bundles  in  preparation 
for  market.  The  tobacco  thus  prepared  may  be  disposed  of  by 
private  sale  at  the  farm,  through  sale  based  on  samples  dis- 
played by  the  Avarehouseman  as  agent  of  the  grower,  or  by  auc- 
tion sale  on  the  floor  of  the  loose  leaf  sales  warehouse  on  a 
commission  basis.^ 

*  For  further  details  rcp;arding  tlie  growing,  curing  and  handling  of  tobacco,  tho 
series  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  on  these  subjects  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  may  be  consulted. 


CHAPTER   VII 


COTTON 
By  John  R.  Fain,  B.S.* 

Cotton  grown  in  the  United  States  can  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes,  the  upland  and  the  long  staple.  The  upland  can 
be  divided  further  into  the  ordinary  upland  and  long  staple 
upland.  These  classifications  are  based  on  the  kind  of  fibre  pro- 
duced. The  fibre  of  the  upland  cotton  usually  runs  from  seven- 
eighths  to  one  and  one-eighth  inches  in  length.  Long  staple  runs 
from  one  and  one-quarter  to  about  one  and  one-half  inches,  while 

the  long  staple  runs  above  one 
and  one-half.  Some  Sea  Island 
as  iQiig  as  two  inches  is  produced. 
In  general  tlie  requirements  for 
a  cotton  soil  are  that  it  should 
be  well  drained,  should  Avarm  up 
quickly  in  the  spring,  and  be  at 
least  reasonably  well  supjolied 
Avitli  mineral  constituents.  Cot> 
ton  is  grown  on  all  types  of  soil 
from  a  coarse  sand  to  a  stiff  clay, 
and,  irrespective  of  the  type, 
where  it  meets  the  above  condi- 
tions a  fair  amount  of  cotton  can 
be  produced.  A  good  manj^  bot- 
tom land  soils  are  known  as  cold 
soils  and  do  not  produce  cotton. 
This  is  unquestionably  due  to  a 
surplus  of  moisture.  A  soil  that 
does  not  crust  is  desirable  in  get- 
ting a  stand  of  cotton  because  the  crust  interferes  materially 
with  the  germination  of  the  cotton  seed,  or  at  least  it  interferes 
with  the  cotton  seed  getting  out  of  the  ground  after  germination 
starts. 

One  of  the  principal  climatic  requirements  of  cotton  is  that 
there  should  be  enough  heat  units  during  the  growing  season  to 
properly  develop  the  cotton.  While  there  are  some  very  early 
cottons  grown,  the  type  that  makes  the  heaviest  yield  is  one 

*  Professor  of  Agronomy,  Georgia  State  College  of  Agriculture, 

135 


Lidiich,  b.  fiuit  (1„, 
ing;  c.  seed  with  fibers 
Itossidlo. 


136  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


that  has  at  least  a  reasonably  long  growing  season.  On  the 
northern  edge  of  the  cotton  belt  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  plant 
the  cotton  on  a  ridge  so  that  it  will  heat  up  sufficiently  quick  in 
the  spring  to  get  a  quick  germination.  During  the  time  that 
cotton  is  getting  established  it  is  rather  a  delicate  plant,  but 
after  it  is  once  established  it  w^ill  stand  a  considerable  amount 
of  adverse  climatic  conditions.  A  low  temperature  during  this 
period  will  retard  the  growth  of  the  plant  very  materially. 


w\ 


:r^- 


iWWito.    in- 


FiG.  4S. —  ]'l(iwiii<,'  niulcr  the  cotton  plant  after  the  crop  has  been  harvested. 

Therefore,  a  climate  is  needed  where  the  spring  comes  on 
rapidly,  warming  up  the  soil,  and  Avithout  recurring  cold  periods. 
After  the  cotton  is  once  established  it  seems  to  thrive  pretty 
well  mth  very  little  moisture.  A  dry  May  is  very  desirable  in 
getting  the  plant  well  started.  After  this  time  seasonable 
showers  are  necessary  to  give  it  the  proper  growth.  Four 
inches  of  rainfall  per  month  during  the  growing  season  is  a  fair 
average  for  the  cotton  belt.  During  the  period  of  harvest,  dry 
weather  is  essential  in  securing  a  good  quality  of  cotton.  Rainy, 
stormy  periods  will  lower  the  grade  and  value  of  cotton  very 
materially. 

In  planting  cotton  care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  the  seed  too 
deep,  as  it  is  rather  difficult  for  a  seed  like  cotton  to  get  out  of  the 


COTTON 


137 


ground.  The  seed  is  covered  with  lint  that  retards  its  progress 
through  the  soil  very  materially,  and  as  the  seed  is  usually 
pushed  up  and  the  seed  cover  thrown  off  after  it  gets  above 
ground,  it  can  be  better  understood  how  this  would  interfere 
with  its  growth.  Usually  the  seed  are  planted  thick  and  chopped 
to  a  stand  later.  The  main  reason  for  iDlanting  them  thick  is 
that  the  combined  force  of  many  seed  can  push  through  the  soil 
where  a  single  seed  would  fail.    In  chopping  to  a  stand,  plants 


Fig.  49. —  Preparing  the  soil  for  a  cotton  crop. 

are  usually  left  from  nine  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  sometimes 
further,  depending  on  the  type  of  the  land.  To  facilitate  the 
chopping,  often  a  turning  plow  is  run  down  either  side  of  the 
row,  leaving  the  plants  on  a  ridge.  After  the  chopping  is  over 
the  dirt  is  thrown  back  to  the  plants. 

Grass  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  cotton  plant  and 
is  fought  very  persistently  by  the  cotton  grower.  In  fact,  cot- 
ton growers  are  about  the  most  successful  weed  fighters  that 
can  be  found.  Cultivators  Adth  sweeps  are  used  to  a  large  extent 
because  they  give  shallow  cultivations  and  are  effective  weed 
killers.  AYeeders  or  light  harrows  are  used  quite  often  just 
before  and  after  the  crop  germinates  to  clean  out  the  grass  and 
weeds.  This  is  probably  the  most  effective  piece  of  cultivation 
in  the  whole  operation,  as  it  saves  an  immense  amount  of  hand 
labor  later  on.  Most  of  the  cultivation  is  done  with  one-horse 
cultivators.  The  Planet  Junior  type  ot  cultivator  is  used  to  a 
large  extent.    A  good  many  two-horse  cultivators  are  being  used 


138  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

with  good  results  and  will  probably  be  used  more  and  more  in 
the  future.  It  is  very  necessary  to  hoe  the  crop  at  least  once  so 
as  to  be  sure  to  get  all  of  the  weeds  that  are  left  by  the  culti- 
vators. The  hand  work  necessary  in  the  production  of  cotton 
makes  it  a  rather  expensive  crojD. 

Through  most  of  the  cotton  belt  fertilizers  are  found  essential. 
A  fairly  high  i)ercentage  of  the  mineral  fertilizers  with  a  low 
percentage  of  nitrogen  is  the  usual  combination.  Fertilizer  is 
usually  applied  in  the  row  wath  the  cotton,  and  often  a  second 
application  is  applied  at  the  side  of  the  cotton  row  later  in  the 


i 


Fig.  50. —  Diversified  farming.     Cotton  crop  in  the  foreground. 

season,  although  on  the  majority  of  the  soil  types  there  seems 
to  be  very  little  difference  in  the  yield  by  applying  all  the  fer- 
tilizers at  one  time  as  compared  Avith  dividing  it. 

Much  of  the  cotton  belt  practices  continuous  cotton  cultiva- 
tion, although  in  many  cases  a  rotation  has  been  used.  For 
many  years  a  standard  rotation  Avas  cotton,  corn,  small  grain 
and  cowpeas.  Since  the  advent  of  the  velvet  bean  and  the  boll 
weevil,  and  the  necessity  thereby  of  turning  under  the  cotton 
stalks,  the  rotation  has  been  changed  to  corn  and  velvet  beans, 
cotton  and  small  grain.  From  data  at  hand  at  this  time  it  would 
seem  that  the  small  grain  does  better  after  cotton  than  it  does 
after  corn. 

With  the  advent  of  the  boll  weevil  many  changes  in  cotton 
production  have  been  brought  about.    First,  a  rotation  is  more 


COTTON  139 

common  than  before.  The  type  of  plant  and  kind  of  seed  used 
have  received  more  attention,  as  the  risk  must  be  reduced  to  tlie 
mininmm  from  other  causes  than  the  weevil.  It  has  added  a 
considerable  burden  to  the  production  of  cotton  in  that  all  the 
weevils  than  can  be  found  must  be  picked  off  earl}^  in  the  spring 
and  destroyed,  and  later  the  squares  that  have  been  punctured 
and  the  egg  deposited  in  which  the  larva  will  develop  must  be 
picked  up  and  destroyed.  The  culture  must  be  more  rapid  so  as 
to  bring  the  plant  to  maturity  at  as  early  a  time  as  possible. 
More  study  is  being  given  to  the  fertilization  of  the  cotton  plant 
than  heretofore.  During  a  season  of  hot,  dry  weather  it  is  pos- 
sible to  keep  ahead  of  the  boll  Aveevil  pretty  well,  but  during 
periods  of  heavy  rains  in  the  growing  season  of  the  cotton  it  is 
very  difficult  to  handle  the  weevil.  The  use  of  calcium  arsenate 
as  a  poison  against  the  weevil  is  being  used  to  a  limited  extent 
and  gives  promise  of  success.  This  is  more  effective  in  a  dry 
season  than  a  rainy  one.  The  cotton  stalks  are  plowed  mider 
early  in  the  fall  so  that  the  food  of  the  adult  weevil  Avill  be 
destroyed  and  it  will  go  into  the  winter  as  weak  as  possible.  In 
this  way  a  great  many  of  them  are  destroyed. 

The  boll  weevil  does  more  damage  than  all  the  other  insect 
enemies  of  cotton  combined,  but  there  are  several  insect  enemies 
that  in  the  aggregate  do  considerable  damage.  The  red  spider 
does  much  damage  at  times,  infecting  cotton  fields  to  such  an 
extent  some  seasons  that  the  growth  is  very  materially  checked 
and  the  yield  reduced.  It  is  combatted  by  special  cultivation  or 
by  sprays.  The  cotton  worm  attacks  the  cotton  at  times  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  season.  The  cotton  boll  worm  or  corn  ear 
worm  destroys  the  young  buds  or  bolls  and  in  this  way  reduces 
the  crop.    These  two  pests  are  held  in  check  Avith  i^oisons. 

AYilt,  anthrocnose  and  rust  are  probably  the  most  common  dis- 
eases of  cotton  and  cause  more  loss  than  any  other  diseases.  The 
wilt  is  confined  to  a  large  extent  to  the  sandy  areas  of  the  Coastal 
Plain,  and  the  only  method  of  combatting  it  found  at  this  time  is 
by  resistant  plants.  The  same  method  is  also  employed  against 
anthracnose,  Avhile,  in  some  cases  at  least,  fertilization  with 
potash  fertilizers  will  help  to  reduce  the  rust. 

Information  can  be  had  from  any  of  the  agricultural  colleges 
or  experiment  stations  in  the  cotton  belt  regarding  the  produc- 
tion of  cotton,  as  this  is  the  main  crop,  and  practically  all  of 
them  have  compiled  a  considerable  amount  of  data  regarding 
this  crop  that  they  are  desirous  to  put  at  the  disposal  of  those 
who  can  use  it  to  an  advantage. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE   FARMER'S   ORCHARD 

Apple. — An  orchard  of  from  one  to  three  acres  of  early, 
medium  and  late  varieties  will  supply  apples  for  family  use  and 
have  a  surplus  for  sale. 


Fig.  51. —  Putting  lime  on  the  young  orchard.  For  most  cases 
lime  should  be  applied  to  the  land  after  it  is  plowed  and 
partly  fitted. — The  Country  Genileman,  published  by  the 
Curtis  Company,  Philadelphia. 

Location. —  Never  locate  in  a  shady  place.  A  free  circulation 
of  air  is  necessary;  gases,  dust  and  smudge  are  objectionable. 
Never  locate  where  the  soil  is  sour,  soggy  or  too  dry.  Best 
flavor  and  color  are  produced  where  the  fruit  is  grown  at  the 
northern  extreme.  Plant  only  varieties  suitable  to  your 
locality.  Exposure  to  destructive  winds  should  be  avoided. 
Southeastern  exposure  and  as  near  the  farm  house  as  possible 
is  considered  best. 

Soils. —  Eich  clay  loam,  deep  and  mellow,  for  Northern  Spy, 
Mcintosh,  King,  Fall  Pippin,  Wagner. 

140 


THE  FAEMER'S  ORCHARD 


141 


Garden  loam  with  medium  heavy  subsoil  for  Rhode  Island 
Greening  and  Grime's  Golden. 

Rich  garden  loam  with  very  light  clay  subsoil  for  Baldwin, 
Hubbardson,  Newton  Pippin  and  Rome  Beauty. 


Fig.  53. —  When  this  tree  was 
planted  the  roots  were  jammed 
into  tlie  hole  which  was  too 
small.  The  tip  of  the  root 
came  to  the  surface  and  then 
took  a  downward  course.  The 
photograph  was  taken  when  the 
tree  was  seven  years  old. 


Ficf.  52. — Cherry  trees  of  the  grades  illus- 
trated in  figures  1  and  2,  showing  the 
methods  of  shaping  the  tops  used  when 
planted:  A,  a  two-year-old  Large  Mont- 
morency, unpruned;  B,  a  one-year-old 
Large  jMontmorency,  unpruned;  C,  same 
as  B,  pruned  to  be  grown  with  an  open 
center;  D,  a  one-year-old  Large  INIont- 
morency,  pruned  to  be  grown  with  a  cen- 
tral leader;  E,  a  one-year-old  Schmidt, 
unpruned;  F,  same  as  E,  headed  back 
ready  for  planting. —  U.  8.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

Varieties.— Buy  trees  from  reliable  firms  and  direct  from 
nursery. 

The  tree. — Two-year-old  trees  are  considered  the  best.  Head 
eighteen  inches  high  for  sod  mulch.  Cultivate  orchards  twenty- 
four  to  thirty  inches  high.  Branches  should  alternate.  Oppo- 
site branches  equal  bad  crotches.  Do  not  let  roots  dry  out; 
heel  in  if  land  is  not  prepared.    Order  trees  early. 

Planting. —  Mild  climate,  plant  in  fall.  Zero  ^\anters,  plant  in 
spring.  Standard  varieties,  30  x  40  feet,  36  trees  per  acre ;  small 
trees,  20  x  30  feet,  72  trees  per  acre.  Dig  large  holes.  Place  sod 
in  one  pile,  loam  in  another,  and  the  clay-soil  (subsoil)  in  a  third. 


142  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


In  planting,  fit  the  fine  soil  about  roots,  sod  packed  in  next,  and 
subsoil  on  the  surface. 

Prune  oi¥  all  bruised  and  broken  roots.  Cut  the  branches  back 
four  to  five  buds  from  the  trunk.    Have  the  rows  straight. 

Fillers  of  cherries,  pears,  currants,  gooseberries  and  other 
fruit  may  be  used  between  the  standard  trees.  Never  allow 
fillers  to  crowd  or  shade  the  apple  tree. 

Culture. —  Cultivate  orchard  (clean  culture),  plow  in  spring, 
disc  harrow  after  i^lowing  and  harrow  surface  soil  frequently. 


AW 

m/ 

Fig.  54. —  A  fine  root  system.  Note 
the  bend  in  the  trunk.  This  is 
where  the  graft  was  inserted. 
Plant  so  that  the  surface  of  the 
ground  covers  about  two  inches 
above  where  the  bend  starts. 


Fig,  55. —  A  very  bad  crotch.  The 
limbs  should  alternate  so  that 
no  two  would  be  opposite.  Note 
the  tag  attached  with  a  wire. 
If  it  is  not  removed  it  will 
girdle  the  limb. 


Stop  cultivation  July  15  to  August  1.  Do  not  bruise  trees  while 
cultivating,  wrap  harness  with  burlap. 

Plant  cover  crop  July  15.  This  prevents  injury  from  frost 
and  washing,  checks  fall  growth,  adds  humus  and  nitrogen, 
protects  the  fruit,  and  holds  leaves  and  snow. 

Cover  crops. —  Barley,  8  to  10  pecks  seed  per  acre ;  rye,  6  to  8 
pecks  seed  per  acre ;  turnips,  2  to  4  pounds  seed  per  acre ;  buck- 
wheat, 3  to  5  pecks  seed  per  acre ;  clover,  8  to  14  pounds  seed  per 
acre ;  vetches,  1  bushel. 

If  companion  crops  of  beans,  squash,  cabbage,  turnips  and 
other  late  maturing  crops  are  planted  in  the  orchard,  mulch  trees 


THE  FARMER'S  ORCHARD 


143 


Fig.  56. —  Plan  of  tree  at  planting  time.- 
U.  S  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Avitli  manure.  Do  not  pile  the  manure  about  the  trunk.  Place 
manure  on  soil  where  water  drips  from  the  foliage,  for  this  is 
where  many  of  the  feeding 
roots  are  located.  Sod, 
mulch,  cut  cover  crop  and 
place  material  over  surface 
soil  where  the  water  drips 
from  the  leaves.  Usually  no 
fertilizer  is  necessary  where 
the  sod  mulch  method  is  prac- 
ticed. 

Fertilizer  for  clean  culture. 
— Three-year-old  trees:  One 
l)ound  dried  hlood,  one  2:>ound 
l)one  meal,  one-half  pound  ni- 
trate of  soda  iwY  tree.  In- 
crease a  little  each  year.  Sta- 
ble manure  is  the  best  fertil- 
izer. 

Fertilizer  for  twenty-  to 
twenty-five-year-old  trees : 
Four  hundred  pounds  basic 
slag  and  two  hundred  pounds  sulphate  of  potash. 

Prune  a  little  each 
year. — -Do  not  leave 
stubs.  Use  only  sharp 
saw  with  small  teeth. 
Paint  all  wounds  over 
one  inch  in  diameter. 
Do  not  over-prune, 
but  keep  head  open 
so  there  may  be  a 
free  circulation  of  air 
through  the  limbs. 
Never  allow  limbs  to 
crowd,  rub  or  cross. 
Thinning. — Thin  in 
when  fruit  is 
size  of  a  quarter. 
Leave  one  apple  to  a 
spur.  The  vitality 
vrr.  1^7     T>^       t  ^       t^  .         .1  •    .,       tliat  wouM  uaturallv 

tiG.  57. —  Plan  of  top  after  one  years  growth  in  the  .  i       r.  " 

orchard.— [/.  s.  Depf.  of' Ayricidliirv.  gO   mto  the   SCed  01   a 


July, 


144  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAKMERS 


heavy  crop,  if  thinned,  will  go  into* the  fruit  spur  for  the  fol- 
lowing year.    Eliminate  *'off"  years. 

Harvesting  and  storage. —  Handle  apples  like  eggs.  Line 
baskets  with  burlap  to  prevent  bruising.  Do  not  pull  out  or 
break  off  the  stem  or  the  fruit  bud.  Pick  fruit  before  it  is  dead 
ripe.  Place  clean  straw  on  shelves  before  storing  apples.  Do 
not  harvest  while  damp  or  pile  in  heaps.  The  fruit  cellar  should 
be  clean,  well  ventilated,  and  the  temperature  thirty  to  thirty- 
three  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Winter  'protection. —  Place  small  mesh  wire  screens  about  the 
trunks  of  young  trees.  Protection  from  mice,  woodchucks  and 
other  animals  is  necessary.  Make  pro- 
tector firm  and  stationary  by  the  use  of 
two  to  three  stakes.  Tar  paper  and  thin 
Avood  may  be  used,  but  remove  early  in 
the  spring  to  prevent  sun-scald.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  remove  Avire  protectors  each 
year. 

Renovating  the  neglected  orchard. — 
Many  orchards  throughout  the  country  are 
unprofitable  because  they  have  been  neg- 
lected. The  trees  have  not  been  sprayed, 
or  pruned  or  cultivated  for  years  and  have 
fallen  into  decay.  Both  insects  and  dis- 
ease infest  such  orchards  and  leave  their 
destructive  marks. 

Many  of  these  trees  may  be  reclaimed  if 
properly  treated  and  made  to  yield  a  re- 
munerative crop. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the 
orchard  is  worth  reclaiming  one  must  de- 
cide the  following  points : 
situated  in  low  land  (pocket)  so  that  the 
much  of  the  bloom?  If  so  the  trees  will 
time  and  money  necessary  to  rejuvenate 


Fig.  58. — A  five-branched 
tree  at  the  end  of  the 
first  season's  growth. 
—U.  8.  Dept.  of  Ag- 
riculture. 

1.  Is  the  orchard 
early  frost  destroys 
never  be  worth  the 
them. 

2.  Is  the  orchard  exposed  to  the  drying  winds  of  winter  and 
the  fall  winds  which  Avhip  off  the  fruit?  In  this  case  a  Avind 
break  of  poplar  trees  may  be  planted  and  the  difficulty  partly 
overcome. 

3.  Has  the  site  good  air  and  sufficient  drainage?  If  on  a 
hillside  or  slightly  rolling  land  the  air  Avill  circulate  freely.  The 
cold  air  Avill  roll  doAvn  hill  and  the  summer  breezes  prevent,  to 


THE  Fx\RMER'S  ORCHARD 


145 


^Method  of  cutting 
a  large  limb  which 
should  be  avoided. — 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture. 


Second 


a  large  extent,  several  of  the  i'lingns  diseases.  The  trees  will 
never  retain  their  vigor  or  bear  satisfactory  fruit  if  there  is  an 
excess  of  water  in  the  soil,  hence  the  ne- 
cessity for  good  drainage. 

4.  How  badly  are  the  trees  diseased 
and  decayed!  Here  the  owner  must  use 
his  o^^^l  best  judgment.  If,  after  the  dead 
limbs  are  dug  out,  but  little  of  the  tree  re- 
mains, and  that  part  diseased,  it  seldom 
pays  to  try  to  reclaim  it.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  dead  wood  is  cut  out,  the  suckers 
and  water  sprouts  removed,  and  the  head 
opened  up  so  there  is  a  free  circulation  of 
air  among  the  branches,  and  there  is  still 
a  well-formed,  rounded  head,  not  too  high 
from  the  ground,  the  tree  is  worth  saving. 

Many  of  the  diseases  may  be  controlled 
by  spraying,  as  suggested  in  the  spray 
calendar. 

5.  IIoAv  old  are  the  trees  and 
are  thej^  vigorous?  Usually  an 
apple  tree  after  it  is  forty  years 
old,  providing  it  has  been  neg- 
lected for  several  years,  is  hardly 
worth  saving;  cherries,  after 
twenty  years;  pears,  twenty 
years ;  plums  ten  to  fifteen  years ; 
and  peaches  ten  to  fifteen  years. 

Frequently  apple  trees  sixty 
years  old  may  become  valuable  if 
they  have  a  sound  trunk,  rounded 
head  exposing  considerable  leaf 
surface  and  a  good  root  system. 

6.  How  tall  are  the  trees?  If 
the  heads  are  so  high  that  it  re- 
quires a  double  extension  ladder 
to  reach  the  fruit  the  trees  are 
hopeless.  Sometimes  by  prun- 
ing out  the  top  the  head  may  be 
brought  down. 

7.  Are  the  varieties  desirable? 
If  not,  the  trees  may  be  worked 
over  by  cleft  grafting.    The  cions. 


I  Cut 


Final  Cut 


Fig.    60. —  Ecmovin: 


large  branches. 
Splitting  down  often  occurs  in 
removing  large  branches.  There 
will  be  little  chance  for  trouble 
if  the  branches  are  cut  away  as 
indicated  in  the  drawing. — IFt.s- 
consin  Bulletin  2G9, 


146  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

if  taken  in  the  fall,  should  be  secured  from  bearing  trees  of  a 
desired  variety  and  packed  in  moist  sand  in  a  cool  place.     If 


Fig,  G1. —  Proper  method 
of  cutting  off  a  large 
limb.— Z7.  *S'.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


Fig,  62. —  Eesults  of  correct  and  incorrect  pruning. 
A,  correct  method;  after  two  years;  B,  incor- 
rect method. — TJ.  H  Dcpt.  of  Agriculture. 


The 


taken  in  the  spring  they  must  be  cut  before  the  buds  start. 

wood  should  be  of  the  previous  year's  groAvth. 

Grafting  is  simple  and 
may  be  done  in  the  follow- 
ing way :  The  cion  should 
have  three  buds ;  it  should 
be  cut  on  both  sides  of  the 
lower  bud  so  that  a  wedge 
is  formed,  the  bud  side  be- 
ing Avider  than  the  side 
opposite.  The  cion  should 
be  cut  on  a  slant  about 
one-half  inch  above  the 
upper  bud.  The  tip  buds 
are  seldom  used. 

In  preparing  the  stub, 
never  cut  a  limb  at  a  knot 
or  when  it  is  over  three 
inches  in  diameter.  Cut 
the  limb  off  squarely  and 
split  it  Adth  a  grafting 
knife  just  far  enough  to 
^o     T^A'      *.    i  +       *  +1,    c       T    '     insert  the  cion.     The  bud 

Fig.    63. —  Diflerent    states    of    the    San    Jose  .  , 

Scale  (enlarge  five  times)..  VMV/mia /Sfaic  Side     snould     DC     OUt     and 

Crop     Pest     Commission     Bulletin     190ff.  ^]^q   lowcr    bud    IcVCl    with 

Massachusetts  Dept.   of   Agriculture  Cir-  ,-,       ,            r,  .-,         ,    ,        -r^, 

cuiar  No.  6,  the  top  01  the  stub.    Place 


.     THE  FARMER'S  ORCHARD 


147 


two  cions  on  each  stub  so  that  the  growing  tissue  of  the  cion 
coincides  with  the  growing  tissues  of  the  stub.  Cover  the  top 
and  split  sides  of  the  stub  and  the  upper  tip  of  the  cion  with 
grafting  Avax.  This  should  be  done  a  week  before  the  buds 
start.  After  the  grafts  grow  for  a  year,  cut  out  one  of  them 
to  prevent  a  bad  crotch.  Work  over  one-third  of  your  tree 
each  year.  The 
cions,  if  inserted  ^<^^M* 

into  the  limb  of  a 
bearing  tree,  will 
bear  fruit  in  three 
to  four  years. 

8.  Are  the  trees 
crowded  so  that 
the  head  has  a 
tendency  to  reach 
up  for  the  light  ? 
If  so  it  might  pay 
to  cut  out  every 
other  tree.  Do  not 
de-hort  the  trees 
with  the  hope  of 
giving  the  head 
more  room.  The 
branches  usually 
run  to  water 
sprouts  and  the 
tree  never  recov- 
ers  from  the 
shock  if  the  en- 
tire head  is  cut 
away. 

If  you  have  decided  that  the  orchard  is  worth  saving  then  you 
should  prune.  Use  a  sharp  saw  with  small  teeth.  Cut  out  all 
dead  limbs  and  limbs  that  cross.  Cut  at  the  collar  of  the  limb 
and  never  leave  a  stub.  Do  not  over  prune.  Paint  all  wounds 
over  one  inch  in  diameter. 

Next  graft  the  head  if  the  varieties  are  not  desirable.  The  tops 
should  be  well  pruned  first,  then  a  root  pruning  should  follow. 

A  light,  shallow  plowing  and  frequent  cultivation  is  advisable. 
Cultivate  the  surface  soil  so  as  to  form  a  dust  mulch  and  stop 
cultivating  in  July,  then  plant  a  cover  crop,  as  suggested  in  a 
previous  paragraph. 


Fic.  (i4. — Oyster  Shell  Scale,  a.  under  side  of  female  scale, 
sliowiiig  eggs;  b.  upper  side  of  same,  both  much  en- 
larged; e.  female  scales  on  a  branch  natural  size; 
(/.  male  scale,  much  enlarged  ;  c.  male  scales  on  branch, 
natural  size.  The  file  lines  to  the  right  of  a,  b,  and  d 
show  the  real  length  of  the  scales. 


148  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  C5. — The  tent  caterpillar,    a,  the  female  moth;  h,  cocoons;  c,  mass  of 
eggs ;  d,  caterpillars  on  the  web ;  e,  larvae. 


Fig.  66.— a  spot  disease  of  apple  leaf. — After  Soraurer, 


THE  FAEMER'S  ORCHARD 


149 


If  tlie  soil  is  very  poor  a  liglit  coating  of  barnyard  manure 


may  be  applied  in  the  fall. 


If  three  Imndred  to  five  hundred 
l^ounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  sulphate  of  pot- 
ash per  acre  is  applied  the  re- 
sults are  good.  Never  apply 
a  nitrogenous  manure  in  any 
form  after  the  orchard  has  been 
pruned. 

If  cultivation  cannot  be  prac- 
ticed then  keep  the  grass  cut 
short  and  mulch  the  trees 
with  it. 

The  winter  spray,  one  to  eight, 
lime  and  sulphur,  should  be  ap- 
FiG.  67.— The  coddling  moth,   a  is  the  plied  before  the  buds  start,  but 

burrow;  6  the  entrance  hole;  c  the      /-i.  -nmniTiP-  Tho       summer 

larva;  rf  the  pupa;  c  moth  at  rest;    ^^^^^      prUUmg.  inc^     SUmmer 

/  moth  with  wings  spread ;(/ head  sprays   as   Suggested   in   a   pre- 

oflarva;/.  cocoon  containing  pupa,   ^j^^^g  paragraph. 

Burn  all  prunings  and  clean  up  the  orchard  before  the  bloom 
appears. 


Fig.  OS.— Bitter  rot  of  apple.— A/^t  Clinton. 


Pears.^-  The  pear  is  the  most  luscious  of  au}^  of  the  fruits, 
but  it  is  much  the  most  difficult  to  grow.  It  may  be  grown  to 
some  degree  of  success  in  various  types  of  soils  which  are  well 
drained.  AATienever  possible,  plant  the  trees  on  a  northeast 
exposure  in  order  to  keep  the  buds  back  in  spring  and  thus 
prevent  the  possible  injury  from  late  frosts. 


150  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


THE  FAKMER'S  ORCHARD 


151 


Soil. —  A  clay  loam  witli  a  deep,  porous  subsoil  is  considered 
the  best.  In  preparing  the  soil  it  should  be  Avell  incorporated 
with  humus,  green  manure,  such  as  clover  preferred,  but  stable 
manure  should  also  be  added.  If  the  young  trees  are  to  be 
planted  in  a  clay  loam  make  sure  that  it  is  well  drained  in  the 
fall  previous  to  planting.     Cultivate  the  soil,  leaving  it  in  the 

rough  over  winter. 
I  In  the  spring  disc 

and  harrow  the 

surface    and    then 

dig   the   holes   fif- 
teen feet  each  way, 

one    hundred    and 

ninety-three    trees 

per   acre    (dwarf 

trees).      Standard 

pears,  plant  fifteen 

by  thirty  feet,nine- 

tj^-six    trees    per 

acre. 
Planting. — Place 

a  little  decayed  sod 

and  fine  top  soil  in 

the  bottom  of  the 

hole  before  setting 

the    trees.     Prune 


Fia.  70. — One-year- 
old  pear  tree. 
The  line  shows 


where    to    cut  off  all  bruiscd  or 

back  at  time  of    ,       ,  .        , 

pruning.— f7.  8.    brolvCU      rOOtS      bc- 
Depf.    of   Agri- 
culture. 


Fig.  71. — Two-year-old  pear  tree.  The 
lines  show  where  to  cut  back  at 
time  of  pruning. — U.  8.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 


fore  planting.  Re- 
move all  long  whip- 
like roots  to  within  six  inches  of 
the  trunk.  The  tree  should  be  set 
in  the  middle  of  the  hole  Avith  the  fine,  rich  top  soil  worked 
in  around  the  roots  and  tramped  down  firmly.  Set  the  trees 
about  three  inches  deeper  than  they  were  planted  in  the  nursery. 
The  depth  of  planting  in  the  nursery  is  shown  by  the  soil  line 
on  the  bark. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  plant  more  than  two  rows  of  any  one 
variety  together,  because  some  of  the  varieties  are  infertile. 
Rows  have  pollenization  in  the  orchard  in  order  to  insure  fruit- 
fulness.    In  general,  spring  planting  is  considered  the  best. 

Cultivation. — A  light  harroAving  of  the  surface  soil  is  desirable 
if  the  orchard  is  under  cultivation.    Stop  cultivating  about  July 


152  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


1  and  plant  cover  crops,  as  suggested  for  the  apple.  In  many 
sections  the  trees  often  begin  to  fruit  when  cultivation  is 
discontinued. 

Fertilizers. —  Barnyard  manure  or  green  manure  such  as 
clover  turned  under  in  the  sjoring  will  insure  fertility  in  the  soil. 
"W^iere  a  commercial  fertilizer  is  used,  six  hundred  pounds  per 
acre  of  2-9-10  is  recommended. 

Pruning. —  All  pruning  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring 
before  the  sap  flows.    Cut  out  all  limbs  that  cross  and  form  the 

head,  as  symmetri- 
cally as  possible,  al- 
lowing the  sunlight 
and  air  to  reach  all 
parts  of  the  tree 
and  thus  prevent 
the  deadly  action  of 
blight.  The  branch- 
es, on  the  other 
hand,  should  not  be 
exposed  to  the  di- 
rect rays  of  the  sun. 
Maintain  sufficient 
foliage  to  protect 
the  bark.  On  start- 
ing the  top,  cut  back 
the  leaders  to  about 
twelve  to  fourteen 
inches  from  the 
ground.  Each  year  for  four  years  cut  back  the  young  growth 
to  about  half  and  always  keep  the  head  of  the  tree  low.  Old 
trees  may  be  cut  back  severely  and  allowed  to  build  a  new  head. 
The  young  growth  should  be  pruned  so  as  to  keep  the  head 
the  desired  shape  and  height.  Pears  are  sometimes  planted 
close  to  a  wall  and  tied  to  a  trellis.  The  branches  are  trained 
fan-shape,  and  this  method  of  culture  is  not  only  artistic  but 
productive. 

Thinning. —  It  is  always  advisable  to  thin  the  fruit,  leaving 
the  pears  from  three  to  six  inches  apart  on  the  limb.  This 
should  be  done  when  the  pears  are  quite  small,  less  than  the  size 
of  a  quarter. 

Harvesting. —  For  keeping,  gather  pears  before  they  are  dead 
ripe,  and  place  on  shelves  in  a  dark,  cool  room. 

Insects  and  disease. —  One  of  the  worst  insect  enemies  is  the 


Fig.  72. —  Right  and  wrong  ways  of  cutting  off  shoots. 
a,  the  right  way;  h,  c^d,  wrong  ways. — U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture. 


THE  FAKMER'S  ORCHARD 


153 


the  trees 
The  soil 


San  Jose  scale  which  attacks  the  bark  and  sucks  the  sap  from 
the  growing  cells.  Spray  before  the  buds  open  with  a  strong 
solution  of  lime  and  sulphur,  one  part  of  sulphur  to  eight  of 
water. 

The  codling  moth  does  some  damage  but  is  easil}^  controlled 
with  the  same  preparation  and  method  as  that  used  on  the  apple 
tree. 

Pear  scab  may  be  controlled  by  spraying  with  Bordeaux 
Mixture  or  lime  sulphur,  sununer  mixture  one  to  forty. 

Pear  blight  or  fire  blight  is  the  worst  disease.  It  attacks 
various  parts  of  the  tree  causing  the  tips  of  limbs  to  wither  and 
die  and  the  bark  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  to  shrink,  tighten  close 
to  the  wood  and  become  sunken  black  blotches.  This  disease  is 
prevalent  Avhere  the  soil  is  very  rich  and  the  tree  has  grown  soft 
and  rapidly.  No  remedy  has  yet  been  discovered.  Cutting  out 
the  diseased  areas  and  spraying  Avith  lime  and  sulphur  may 
check  the  disease.  Buy  varieties  that  are  less  subject  to  its 
attack,  such  as  the  Seckel,  Angouleme,  and  Kieffer. 

Plums. —  For  a  limited  planting  about  the  home, 
are  most  generally  planted  on  the  lawn,  and  in  sod. 
should  be  moderatel}^  fertile  and  well 
drained.    While  the  plum  thrives  best 
in  a  clay  loam,  yet  it  Avill  succeed  in 
almost  any  kind  of  soil. 

Make  the  holes  large  so  as  not  to 
cj'owd  the  roots.  Place  the  sod  in  one 
pile,  the  fine,  mellow  surface  soil  in 
another,  and  the  subsoil  in  a  third 
pile.  Place  some  of  the  mellow  soil 
mixed  with  two  pounds  of  bone  meal 
to  each  hole,  in  the  bottom.  After 
packing  the  mellow  soil  around  the 
roots,  fill  in  the  sod  and  finally  the 
subsoil.  Cut  off  all  broken  or  mutil- 
ated roots  and  prune  back  the  top  or  branches  so  as  to  form 
a  symmetrically  headed  tree. 

The  i^lum  tree  requires  considerable  moisture  to  complete  the 
development  of  a  crop.  After  planting  in  the  early  spring,  fif- 
teen to  twenty  feet  each  way,  mulch  the  surface  of  the  sod  with 
straw  or  coarse  manure.  If  the  trees  are  planted  on  cultivated 
soil,  form  a  dust  mulch  about  them  and  continue  to  cultivate. 
Of  course  where  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to  keep  the  soil  moist, 
mulching  is  not  altogether  necessarv.     If  the  cultivation  is  dis- 


yf^ 


Fio.  73. —  The  phim  tree  our- 
culio.  a,  the  larva;  b,  the 
pupa;  c,  the  beetle;  d,  cur- 
ciilio,  natural  size,  on 
young  plum. 


154  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 


continued  about  July  1,  sow  oats  and  Canada  field  peas  mixed, 
or  rye  and  vetch  as  a  cover  crop  to  protect  the  roots  in  A\dnter. 
Dig  this  green  manure  under  in  the  spring. 

If  the  ''framework'^  of  the  tree  has 
been  x>roperly  constructed  (low,  loose 
head),  little  pruning  will  be  necessary 
after  the  fifth  year's  growth. 

Thin  the  fruit  so  that  the  tree  may 
produce  each  year  and  the  remaining 
fruit  will  be  larger,  a  finer  texture,  and 
better  flavor.  The  plum  curculio  is  con- 
trolled with  the  same  solution  as  sug- 
gested for  the  same  insect  on  the  cherry. 
To  control  the  brown  rot,  pick  off  all 
the  ** mummies"  or  rotten  phmis  after 
the  foliage  has  fallen.  Spray  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Cherries. — All  low-lying  land  should 
be  avoided  for  both  the  sweet  and  sour 
cherries.  The  sweet  cherry,  if  grow^n 
with  any  degree  of  success,  requires  a 
deep,  sandy  loam,  so  exposed  (north- 
east) that  the  blossoms  will  be  held  back 
until  all  danger  of  frost  has  passed.  A 
southern  exposure  not  only  causes  the 
buds  to  break  early  but  often  causes  sun- 
scald.  The  sour  cherries  are  hardier 
than  the  sweet  varieties  and  do  well  in 
a  light  clay  soil. 
The  sv/eet  cherry  should  be  planted  twenty-four  feet  each  way, 
seventy-five  trees  per  acre,  while  the  sour  cherry  has  ample  room 
at  eighteen  feet  each  way,  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  trees  per 
acre.  Both  should  be  planted  early  in  the  spring,  set  firmly  in 
the  soil  and  the  surface  of  the  soil  cultivated  until  July  15  Avhen 
a  cover  crop  should  be  planted,  clover,  rye  or  vetch.  If  crops 
are  grown  between  the  trees  continue  cultivation  until  Septem- 
ber and  then  mulch  with  straw  or  manure.  After  the  trees  come 
into  bearing  (five  years)  apply  each  spring  one-half  Avheel- 
barrow  load  of  manure,  two  pounds  of  bone  meal,  and  one  pound 
of  muriate  of  potash  to  each  tree  working  this  fertilizer  into  the 
first  three  inches  of  soil. 

Both  the  sour  and  sweet  cherries  require  very  little  pruning 
after  they  come  into  bearing.     Keep  the  head  low,  remove  all 


Fig.  74. —  Black  knot,  a,  on 
pluin;  b,  on  currant. 
Cut  out  infected  parts 
two  to  three  inches  be- 
low the  diseased  wood. 
Burn  all  diseased  wood. 
After  pruning  spray  the 
trees  with  Bordeaux 
mixture. — After  Massee. 


THE  FARMER'S  ORCHARD  155 

limbs  that  cross,  also  all  dead  branches  or  twigs,  cut  out  and 
keej)  the  limbs  open  enough  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air 
through  the  tree.  The  best  growers  head  tlieir  trees  about  eigh- 
teen inches  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  planting  time. 
There  is  a  wide  difference  of  ojiinion  as  to  time  and  metliods  of 
pruning.  In  general,  prune  early  in  the  spring  before  the  buds 
start.  After  the  tree  comes  into  bearing,  very  little  pruning  is 
required. 

The  general  culture  in  the  treatment  of  the  soil  is  similar  to 
that  reconmiended  for  the  pear  or  plum. 

The  three  insect  enemies  that  the  average  grower  has  to 
encounter  are  cherry  fruit  fly,  plum  curculio,  and  pear  slug.  The 
cherry  fly  is  about  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  house  fly.  It  appears 
in  June.  The  female  stings  the  fruit  and  lays  her  eggs  under 
the  skin.  The  maggot  is  full  grown  about  the  time  the  cherry 
ripens.  Spray  with  one-half  pound  arsenate  of  lead  to  seven 
gallons  of  water.  Before  spraying  add  one  pint  of  cheap 
molasses.  The  molasses  attracts  the  fly  and  the  poison  kills  it. 
Spray  when  the  Early  Richmonds  show  signs  of  red. 

The  plum  curculio  is  a  grayish-black  beetle  which  lays  her  eggs 
in  the  green  cherry.  Clean  aAvay  brush  piles  and  weeds  and 
cultivate.  Spray  with  arsenate  of  lead  the  same  strength  as  used 
for  the  cherry  fruit  fly. 

The  pear  slug  in  the  larva?  stage  is  a  small,  blackish  slug 
which  feeds  on  the  upper  i)art  of  the  foliage.  Spray  with 
arsenate  of  lead. 

The  principle  disease  of  the  cherry  is  xhe  brown  rot,  causing 
the  cherries  to  decay.  Allow  sunshine  and  a  free  circulation  of 
air  through  the  branches.  Destroy  all  diseased  fruit  after 
harvesting  and  spray  with  Bordeaux  Mixture. 

Birds  are  sometimes  a  common  enemy  of  the  cherry  tree. 
Cover  the  tree  with  mosquito  netting.  One  dollar  will  buy 
enough  to  jirotect  a  six-year-old  tree. 

Peaches.— In  past  years  it  was  thought  tliat  the  peach  Avas 
partial  to  a  sandy  type  of  soil,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated 
beyond  a  doubt  that  the  peach  will  grow  on  any  type  of  soil  that 
will  grow  corn  or  potatoes.  A  sandy  loam  A^'ith  a  light  clay 
subsoil  is  especially  desirable  because  of  the  adequate  supply  of 
moisture,  warmth  of  the  soil  drainage,  and  general  physical 
condition. 

If  peaches  are  growni  in  a  commercial  way,  the  orchard  should 
be  located  where  the  transportation  facilities  are  close  at  hand. 
The  orchard  site  is  influenced  by  elevation,  bodies  of  water  and 


156   THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

slope  (see  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  917,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture). 

Planting. — "As  a  rule,  only  thrifty,  well  grown,  well  rooted 
one-year-old  or  June  budded  trees  free  from  injurious  insect 
pests  and  fungous  diseases  should  be  planted.''  Plant  in  the 
spring.  Never  allow  the  roots  to  dry  out;  heel  the  trees  in. 
Trees  planted  18  x  18  feet,  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  trees  i)er 
acre,  20  x  20  feet,  one  hundred  and  eight  trees  per  acre.  Plant 
in  straight  rows  and  do  not  crowd  the  roots.  Set  the  trees  two 
to  three  inches  deeper  than  the  nursery  planting.  Remove  all 
mutilated  roots  Avith  a  sharp  tool.    Prune  back  the  head  vigor- 


FiG.  75. — Wounds  made  in  pruning.  Left — Wound  improperly 
made.  Do  not  leave  stubs.  Center — The  proper  place  to  make 
the  cut.  Right — The  properly  made  wound  heals  rapidly. — 
Wisconsin  Bulletin  269. 


ously  after  planting.  Fit  the  finely  pulverized  soil  about  the 
roots  and  pack  it  down  firmly. 

Cultivation. —  In  general,  peaches  thrive  best  on  land  that  is 
tilled  each  year.  Plow  early  in  the  spring  and  harrow  the  sur- 
face soil  so  that  there  is  a  dust  mulch.  Stop  cultivation  about 
mid-season  and  plant  a  cover  crop  of  red  clover,  crimson  clover, 
vetch,  or  rye,  oats,  etc.  No  special  commercial  fertilizer  can  be 
safely  recommended. 

Pruning. —  The  principle  objects  sought  in  pruning  may  be 
suimnarized  as  follows  (United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture Bulletin  No.  917) : 

1.  To  modify  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

2.  To  keep  the  tree  shapely  and  within  bounds. 

3.  To  make  the  tree  more  stocky. 

4.  To  open  the  tree  top  to  admit  air  and  sunshine. 


THE  FAKMER'S  ORCHARD 


157 


5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
tree. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 


To  reduce  the  struggle  for  existence  in  the  tree  top. 

To  remove  dead  or  interfering  branches. 

To  renew  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

To  aid  in  stimulating  the  develoi^ment  of  fruit  buds. 

To  secure  good  distribution  of  fruit  buds  throughout  the 


To  thin  the  fruit. 

To  induce  uniformity  in  the  ripening  of  the  fruit. 

To  make  thorough  spraying  possible. 

To  facilitate  the  harvesting  of  the  fruit. 

Tliinmng. —  If  the  fruit  is  to  attain  a  commercial  standard,  be 
of  a  good  ciuality,  attractive  appearance,  and  to  eliminate  *'off" 
years,  thin  to  four  to  six  inches  between  each  fruit.  Thin  after 
the  "June  drop"  or  about  four  to  six  weeks  after  the  petals  fall. 

If  the  leaves  curl  early  in  the  season,  you 
may  have  the  leaf  curl  disease  among  your 
trees  and  they  should  be  sprayed  mth  Bor- 
deaux mixture  or  lime  sulphur. 

If  the  leaves  turn  yellow  early  in  the  sum- 
mer, dig  out  the  tree  or  cut  oif  any  affected 
branch  and  burn  it.  There  is  no  remedy  for 
the  peach  yellows. 

Quince. — The  quince  is  seldom  grown  be- 
cause it  is  slow  to  bear  and  very  irregular 
in  groAvth.  It  requires  a  well-drained,  clay 
soil.  Secure  one-  or  two-year-old  trees,  prune 
off  all  side  shoots  and  form  a  standard  on 
which  a  low  head  may  be  formed.  Prune 
out  all  superfluous  shoots  each  spring  before 
the  sap  flows  and  allow  the  air  to  circulate 
freely  among  the  branches.  Sucker  growth  is  common  and 
should  be  cut  out.  The  same  treatment  of  the  soil  in  fertilizers 
and  cultivation  which  is  suited  to  the  culture  of  the  peach  is 
demanded  by  the  quince. 

Age  of  bearing". —  Not  infrequently  amateur  fruit  growers 
expect  fruit  from  their  trees  much  sooner  after  planting  than 
they  should,  and  disappointment  is  inevitable.  The  statements 
that  follow  concerning  the  age  at  which  different  fruits  bear  will 
serve  as  a  general  guide.  The  age  of  a  tree  is  usually  reckoned 
from  the  time  it  is  planted  in  its  permanent  j^lace. 

Apple  trees  should  begin  to  bear,  as  a  rule,  when  they  have 
been  planted  six  to  eight  years.  Certain  varieties,  as  the  Yellow 
Transparent  and  Wagener,  may  bear  considerably  younger,  and 


76.—  The  flat- 
headed  borer,  a, 
the  larva;  6,  the 
pupa;  (/,  the  per- 
fect beetle.  It  in- 
jures many  kinda 
of  trees. 


158  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

others,  such  as  the  Northern  Spy  and  Yellow  Newtown,  not  until 
they  are  somewhat  older.  Individual  trees  of  the  same  variety 
vary  somewhat  in  this  respect. 

Pear  trees  bear,  in  general,  at  about  the  same  age  as  apple 
trees,  though  perhaps  a  little  younger. 

Peach  trees  under  favorable  conditions  often  bear  at  three 
years  of  age,  and  in  any  event  they  should  bear  at  four  years 
unless  injured  by  frost  or  otherwise. 

Plums  vary  considerably  according  to  the  group  to  which  they 
belong,  but  most  sorts  begin  to  bear  in  four  or  five  years  after 
planting. 

Sour  cherries  ordinarily  begin  to  bear  in  about  four  years  and 
sweet  cherries  at  six  or  seven  years  after  planting. 

Apricots  come  into  bearing  at  about  the  same  age  as  peaches, 
or  sometimes  a  little  later. 

Quinces  are  usually  five  or  six  years  old  before  they  bear  much 
fruit. 

Raspberries,  blackberries,  and  dewberries,  if  planted  in  the 
spring,  should  bear  a  light  crop  the  next  year.  Strawberries 
planted  in  the  spring  or  early  enough  in  the  autumn  to  make  a 
good  growth  before  the  advent  of  cold  weather  should  produce 
a  good  crop  the  next  season. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  commonly  bear  a  few  fruits  the 
third  season  after  planting. 

Grapes  may  bear  very  lightly  the  third  season  where  condi- 
tions are  favorable,  but  not  much  fruit  should  be  expected  earlier 
than  the  fourth  year. 

LISTS  OF  VARIETIES  FOR  DIFFERENT  DISTRICTS 
District  1 

Varieties  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  of  special  importance  for  the  colder  sec- 
tions of  the  district.  For  an  explanation  of  the  abbreviations  used  in  connection 
with  peaches,  see  under  "Peach  varieties"  (p.  159)  ;  under  strawberries  the  abbre- 
viation imp.  =  imperfect.  A  synonym  is  shown  by  printing  the  name  in  italic 
type  in  parentheses. 

Apples. — Early;  Yellow  Transparent,  *01denburo:  (Duchess),  Tetofski,  Peach 
{Peach  of  Montreal).  Midseason;  *  Wealthy,  *Dudley,  Fameuse.  Winter; 
Mcintosh,  Bethel,  *Scott  Winter, _ Tolman   (sweet).    _        _        _ 

Pears. — Flemish  (in  milder  sections),  Clapp  Favorite  (in  milder  sections). 

Peaches. — Planting:  not  advised. 

Plums. — Arctic  {Moore  Arctic),  De  Soto,  Forest  Garden,  Wolf,  Cheney. 

Cherries. — Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Easpberries. — Herbert,*  Ranere  {St.  Regis). ^ 

Blackberries. — Snyder.* 

Deioherries. — Planting  not  advised. 

^  Hardy  in  the  more  favorable  parts  of  this  area. 


THE  FAEMER'S  ORCHARD 


159 


Currants. — Perfection   (red),  White  Imperial. 
Gooseberries. — Downing. 

Straiiherries. — Dunlap,  Warficld   (imp.),  Progressive. 
Grapes. — Planting  not  advised. 

District  2 

EAST  AND  WEST  AS  A  WHOLE 

The  following  varieties  are  suggested  for  all  of  district  2,  aside  from  the 
exception  noted : 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Early  Harvest,  Oldenburg,  Primate, 
Williams,  Jefferis,  Benoni,  Maiden  Blush,  Gravenstcin.  Midseason:  Wealthy, 
Ramsdell  (sweet),  Fall  Pippin,  Mother,  Hubbardston.  Winter:  Mcintosh, 
Tompkins  King,  Tolman  (sweet),  Rhode  Island  Greening,  White  Pippin,  Bald- 
win, Northern  Spy. 

Pears. — Giffard,  Tyson,  Bartlett,  Seckel,  Howell,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Lawrence; 
Winter  Nelis. 


Fig.  il. — jNlap  ot  the  United  States,  showing  the  districts  into  which  the  country 
is  divided  for  use  in  applying  the  fruit-variety  lists. 

Peaches. — Greensboro  (w  fc),  Carman  (w  fc),  St.  John  (y  f),  Champion 
(w  fc),  Reeves  (y  f ),  Oldmixon  Free  (w  f),  Elberta  (y  f),  Late  Crawford  (v  f ), 
Chairs  (y  f),  Stevens  (w  f),  Smock  (y  f). 

Plums. — Bradshaw,  Lombard,  Diamond,  Reine  Claude,  Grand  Duke,  Arch- 
duke, Jefferson,  Monarch,  Middleburg,  Italian  (prune),  Shroi)shire  (damson). 
Japanese  varieties:    Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  Chaliot. 

Cherries. — Sour  varieties  :  Richmond,  Montmorency,  English  Morello.  Sweet 
varieties:    Tartarian,  Spanish,  Windsor. 

Raspberries. — Cutlabert  (red),  Golden  Queen  (yellow),  Cumberland  (black), 
Columbian  ( purple) . 

Blackberries. — Eldorado  (except  along  northern  border  in  New  England), 
Snyder,  Mersereau. 

Dewberry. — Lucretia, 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  White  Imperial. 

Gooseberry. — Downing. 

Straivherries. — Early:   Dunlap.     Late:    Belt  {WiUiam  Belt),  Sample  (imp.). 


160  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Grapes. — White :  Diamond,  Empire  State,  Niagara,  Winchell.  Red :  Brighton, 
Brilliant,  Delaware,  Salem.    Black:  Concord,  Ives,  Moore,  Worden. 

EAST  AND  WEST  SEPARATELY 

The  following  varieties  are  suggested  for  district  2,  east:  Gooseberry — Co- 
lumbus (European) ;  raspberries — Herbert,  Marlboro  (both  red),  and  Farmer 
(black) ;  straivbe'>-ry — Marshall  (early).  For  district  2,  west:  Currant — London 
(red) ;  raspberry — King  (red) ;  strawberry — Bubach  (imp.). 

District  3 

EAST  AND  WEST  AS  A  WHOLE 

The  folloAving  varieties  are  suggested  for  all  of  district  3,  aside  from  the 
exceptions  noted: 

Apples. — Early :  Yellow  Transparent,  early  Harvest,  Early  Ripe,  Red  June, 
Williams,  Benoni,  Horse,  Maiden  Blush,  Wealthy.  Midseason:  Smokehouse, 
Bonum,  Delicious,  Grimes,  Kinnard.  Winter:  York  Imperial,  Rome  Beauty, 
White  Pippin,  Stayman  Winesap,  Winesap,  Royal  Limbertwig. 

Pears. — Bartlett  (in  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  Indiana  only),  Seckel,  Kieffer. 

Peaches. — Mayflower  (w  c),  Early  Wheeler  (w  c),  Greensboro  (w  fc),  Arp, 
(y  c).  Carman  (w  fc),  Hiley  (w  fc).  Belle  (w  fc),  Ray  (w  fc),  Reeves  (y  f), 
Elberta  (y  f),  Frances  (y  f).  Late  Crawford  (y  f).  Chairs  (y  f).  Smock  (y  f). 
Levy  (y  c),  Salwey  (y  f ). 

Plums. — Native  and  hj'brid  varieties:  America,  Forest  Rose,  Gonzales,  Mil- 
ton, Miner,  Munson,  Newman,  Poole  Pride,  Pottawattamie,  Robinson,  Whitaker, 
Wildgoose.    Japanese  varieties :   Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  Chabot. 

Cherries. — Same  as  for  district  2,  but  with  decreasing  value  southward. 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert  (red),  Golden  Queen  (yellow),  Cumberland  (black), 
Columbian  ( purple ) . 

Blackberries. — Early  Harvest,  Eldorado,  Evergreen  (in  New  Jersey  only). 

Dewberry. — Lucretia. 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  White  Imperial. 

Gooseberry. — Downing. 

Strawberries. — See  below. 

Grapes. — White:  Diamond,  Niagara,  Winchell.  Red:  Brighton,  Brilliant, 
Delaware.    Black:   Concord,  Moore,  Worden. 

EAST  AND   WEST   SEPAEATELY 

The  following  varieties  are  suggested  for  district  3,  east:  Gooseberry — Co- 
lumbus (European);  raspberry — Ranere  (red);  strawberries — Premier  (early), 
Success  (early),  Joe  (late),  Chesapeake  (late);  grapes — Elvira  (white),  Lutie 
(red),  Ives  (black).  For  district  3,  west:  Currant — London  (red)  ;  deivberry — 
Mayes  {Austin)  ;  raspberry — King  (red) ;  strawberries — Dunlap,  Bubach  (imp.) 
(both  varieties  except  in  Tennessee  and  southward),  Thompson  (in  Tennessee 
and  southward),  Aroma  (throughout  section) ;  grapes — Martha  (white),  Catawba 
(red),  Carman  (black). 

District  4 
EAST  AND  WEST  AS  A  WHOLE 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Red  June,  Early  Harvest,  Red  Astra- 
ehan.  Horse,  San  Jacinto,  Bledsoe.  Midseason:  Bonum,  Kinnard.  Winter: 
Winesap,  Texas  Red,  Yates,  Terry. 

Pears. — Kieffer  (with  Le  conte  or  Garber). 

Peaches. — Same  as  for  district  3,  though  the  late  varieties  should  probably 
be  omitted. 

Plums. — Same  as  for  district  3. 


THE  FARMEE'S  ORCHARD         161 

Cherries. — Planting  not  advised. 
Japanese  persimmons. — See  district  5. 
Figs. — See  district  5. 

EAST   SEPARATELY 

Raspberry. — Ranere  (above  ^OO  feet  altitude). 

Blackberry. — Earl}'  Harvest  (above  500  feet  altitude). 

Deuberry. — Lucretia. 

Strawberries. — Klondike,  Missionary,  Thompson. 

Currants  and  gooseberries. — Planting  not  advised. 

Grapes. — "White:  Diamond,  Empire  State,  Elvira,  Niagara.  Red:  Agawam, 
Brighton,  Brilliant,  Delaware.  Black:  Concord,  Carman,  Moore,  Diamond. 
Along  the  Atlantic  coast  and  extending  about  100  miles  inland  the  varieties  of 
the  Muscadine  group  of  grapes  also  succeed.  These  include  Thomas,  James, 
Eden,  Flowers,  Mish  and  Scuppemong. 

WEST   SErARATELY 

Blackberries. — Early  Harvest,  Dallas,  McDonald  (self -sterile),  Haupt. 

Deuberry. — Mayes  ( Austin ) . 

Straicberries. — Klondike,  Thompson. 

Raspberries,  currants  and  gooseberries. — Planting  not  advised. 

Grapes. — White :  Gold  Coin,  Wapanuka,  Winchell,  Rommel.  Red  :  Headlight, 
Brilliant,  Brighton,  Last  Rose.  Black:  Husmann,  Fern  [Fern  Munson),  Moore, 
Carman. 

District  5 

EAST  AND  WEST  AS  A  WHOLE 

Apples. — Planting  not  advised. 

Pear. — Kieffer  (with  Le  Conte  or  Garber). 

Peaches. — Jewel  (y  f),  Honey  (w  f).  Imperial  (w  f),  Pallas  (w  f),  Waldo 
(w  f),  Florida  Gem  (w  f),  Climax  (w  f),  Colon  (w  f),  Triana  (w  f).  Angel 
(w  f ),  Hall  Yellow  (y  f ),  Cabler  (r  c),  Estella  (y  f ),  Ondcrdonk  (y  f ). 

Plums. — Six  Weeks,  Excelsior,  Terrell,  America,  Poole  Pride.  Japanese 
varieties :   Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  Kelsey. 

Cherries. — Planting  not  advised. 

Japanese  persimmons^ — Tanenashi,  Haehiya,  Hyakume,  Okame,  Triumph, 
Tamopan,  Eureka,  Zengi,  Costata,  Ormond,  Gailey,*  Masugata.' 

Figs. — Celeste,'  Turkey'  {Brown  Turkey),  Brunswick,  Ischia,  Lemon, 
Magnolia.* 

*  Comparatively  little  definite  information  exists  in  regard  to  the  range  of  adapta- 
bility of  different  persimmon  varieties.  This  list  includes  the  principal  sorts  that  are 
planted  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  Tanenashi  is  probably  gro\vn  more 
extensively  at  present  than  any  other  sort.  The  Eureka  has  proved  especially  hardy 
and  desirable  in  Erath  County,  Tex.,  about  sixty  miles  southwest  of  Fort  Worth,  and 
also  at  one  or  two  points  considerably  farther  north.  The  Tamopan  is  a  Chinese 
variety  and  may  possess  a  greater  degree  of  hardiness  than  was  formerly  supposed. 
Zengi  is  one  of  the  earliest  varieties.  Costata  and  Ormond  may  be  too  late  for  grow- 
ing in  most  parts  of  district  4. 

'  Gailey  and  Masugata  are  not  of  much  value  for  their  fruit,  but,  unlike  the  other 
varieties,  the  trees  have  both  pollen-bearing  and  fruit-producing  blossoms.  As  a  rule, 
these  two  types  of  blossoms  are  borne  on  separate  trees.  While  some  varieties  pro- 
duce fruit  without  pollination,  others  do  not;  hence,  in  planting  any  large  number  of 
persimmons  it  is  advisable  to  include  a  pollen-producing  sort. 

*  The  Celeste  is  regarded  as  the  hardiest  variety  of  this  group,  with  Turkey  perhaps 
only  slightly  less  hardy.  The  former  is  much  rnore  Avidely  planted  than  any  of  the 
others  in  the  list.  These  two  sorts  should  be  planted  in  district  4  in  preference  to 
the  others,  unless  possibly  in  a  few  especially  favorable  localities. 

*The  Magnolia  is  planted  in  the  Gulf  coast  region  of  Texas  nearly  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  varieties.  It  is  not  satisfactory  in  other  parts  of  district  5,  except  possibly 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  Louisiana. 


162  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Grapes. — White:  Wapanuka,  Hidalgo,  Niagara,  Krause.  Red:  Brighton, 
Captivator,  Agawam,  Valhallah.  Black :  R.  W.  Munson,  Cloeta,  Carman,  Cham- 
pcnel.  The  varieties  of  the  Muscadine  group  named  under  district  4,  east,  are 
also  adapted  to  most  jDarts  of  district  5.  By  adopting  special  methods  of  train- 
ing and  by  grafting  on  resistant  stocks,  certain  varieties  of  Vinifera  or  Euro- 
pean grapes  have  been  grown  with  some  success.  However,  they  are  not  recom- 
mended for  general  i^lanting  in  this  district. 

EAST    SErARATELY 

Raspberries,  blackberries,  dewberries,  currants,  gooseberries  and  strawber- 
ries.— Same  as  for  district  4,  east. 

WEST    SEPARATELY 

Baspberries,  blackberries,  deivberries,  currants,  gooseberries  and  strawber- 
\ies. — Same  as  for  district  4,  west. 

District  6 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Early  Harvest,  Red  June,  Oldenburg, 
Benoni,  Maiden  Blush,  Wealthy.  Midseason :  Grimes,  Jonathan,  King  David, 
Delicious.     Winter:  York  Imperial,  Stayman  Winesap,  Winesap,  Ingram. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Seckel,  Anjou,  Kieffer. 

Peaches. — Early  Wheeler  (w  c),  Greensboro  (w  fc),  Arp  (y  c),  Carman 
(w  fc),  Hiley  (w  fe),  Belle  (w  fc),  Family  Favorite  (w  fc),  Elberta  (y  f), 
Stevens  (w  f).  Stump  (w  f ),  Smock  (y  f). 

Plums. — Native  and  hybrid  varieties :  De  Soto,  Miner,  Surprise,  Terry, 
Whitaker,  Hawkeye,  Pottawattamie,  Golden  (Gold),  Brittlewood,  Emerald. 
Japanese  varieties:     Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank. 

Cherries. — Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Raspberries. — King  (red),  Pearl   (black),  Cardinal   (purple). 

Blackberries. — Mersereau,  Eldorado,  Early  Harvest. 

Dewberries. — Lucretia,  Mayes  (Austin). 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  London  (red),  White  Imperial. 

Gooseberries. — Downing,  Oregon. 

Straivberrp. — Dunlap. 

Grapes. — White:  Winchell,  Diamond,  Noah,  Elvira.  Red:  Brilliant,  Lutie, 
Catawba,  Brighton.     Black:    Moore,  Concord,  Worden,  Bacchus. 

District  7 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Livland  Raspberry,  Oldenburg,  Char- 
lamoff,  Whitney,  Benoni,  Dyer.  Midseason :  Wealthy,  Brilliant,  Patten,  Rams- 
dell  (sweet),  Roman  Stem.  Winter:  Banana,  White  Pearmain,  Northwestern, 
Black  Annette,  Delicious,  Tolman  (sweet),  Windsor,  Stayman  Winesap,  Ralls. 

Pears. — Flemish,  Bartlett,  Seckel,  Kieffer. 

Peaches  are  uncertain  at  the  best  in  this  district.  In  favorahle  seasons  the 
following  varieties  would  probably  fruit  in  some  sections:  Greensboro  (w  fc), 
Champion  (w  f),  Bailey  (w  fc),  Crosby  (y  f),  Wright  (w  fc),  Russell  (w  f), 
Bokhara  (w  f).  Lone  Tree  (y  f). 

Plums. — Forest  Gai'den,  Stoddard,  Wolf,  Surprise,  Rockford,  Hawkeye,  Terry, 
De  Soto,  Wyant,  Miner,  Emerald,  Brittlewood. 

Cherries. — Timme,  Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Raspberries. — King  (red).  Sunbeam  (red),  Minnesota  No.  4  (red),  Older 
(black),  Columbian  (purple). 

Blackberries. — Eldorado,  Snyder. 

Dewberries. — Planting  not  advised. 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  London  (red),  White  Imperial. 


THE  FARMER'S  ORCHARD         163 

Gooseberries. — Downing,  Carrie. 
Strauherries. — Dunlap,  Warfield  (imp.). 

Grapes. — White:  Diamond,  Niagara,  Noah,  Wineholl.  Red:  Brighton,  Ca- 
tawba, Lutie,  Woodruff.    Black:    Concord,  Ives,  Moore,  Worden. 

District  8 

EAST  AND  WEST  AS  A  WHOLE 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Livland  Raspbeny,  Oldenburg,  Iowa 
Beauty,  Benoni.  Midseason :  Wealthy,  McMahan,  Anisim,  Wolf  River,  Utter, 
Peerless,  Plumb,  Cider.  Winter:  Mcintosh,  Patten,  Northwestern,  Jewell  Win- 
ter, Milwaukee,  Scott  Winter,  Malinda. 

Pears. — Flemish,  Warner. 

Peaches. — Planting  not  advised. 

Plums. — De  Soto,  Forest  Garden,  Cheney,  Wolf,  Wyant,  Stoddard,  Surprise, 
RoUingstone,  Waneta.  Sand  cherry-plum  hybrids:  Compass,  Hanska,  Sapa, 
Opata,  Sansota,  Cheresota,  Waehampa. 

Cherries. — Timme,  Richmond,  Montmorency. 

EAST    SErARATELY 

Raspberries,  blackberries,  dewberries,  currants,  gooseberries  and  strauber- 
ries. — Same  as  for  district  7,  except  that  the  Columbian  raspberry  should  be 
omitted. 

Grapes. — White:  Diamond,  Niagara,  Noah,  Wineholl.  Red:  Brilliant,  Dela- 
ware, Merrimac,  Woodruff.     Black:    Concord,  Ives,  Moore,  W^orden. 

WEST   SErARATELY 

The  same  varieties  of  currants  and  gooseberries  are  suggested  as  for  district  7. 
On  account  of  limited  precipitation,  raspberries,  blackberries  and  strawberries 
are  not  likley  to  be  very  satisfactory  in  district  8,  west,  except  under  irriga- 
tion. If  water  can  be  applied,  and  perhaps  winter  proection  given,  the  same 
varieties  as  those  suggested  for  district  7  may  prove  of  some  value.  Conditions 
are  similar  wnth  reference  to  grapes.  No  varieties  can  be  recommended  for 
this  section  with  confidence  of  success,  but  where  irrigation  and  winter  protec- 
tion can  be  given  the  following  may  be  worth  trying:  White — Diamond,  Lady, 
Martha,  Niagara;  red — Agawam,  Catawba,  Delaware,  Vergennes;  black — Con- 
cord, Hartford,  Isabella,  Worden. 

District  9 

Apples. — Oldenburg  (Duchess),  Patten,  Okabena,  Hibernal. 

Pears. — Planting  not  advised. 

Peaches. — Planting  not  advised. 

Plums. — The  list  for  district  8  contains  the  varieties  of  most  importance  for 
district  9,  The  sand  cherry-plum  hybrids  are  also  of  value  in  many  sections  of 
district  9. 

Cherries. — The  varieties  named  for  other  districts  are  not  likely  to  be  hard}', 
as  a  rule,  in  this  district.  Sand  cherries,  however,  are  of  value  for  jellies,  etc. 
Buffalo  berries  and  other  native  wild  fruits  are  also  used  for  jelly-making. 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  London  (red),  White  Imperial. 

Gooseberries. — Downing,  Carrie. 

Strawberries. — With  winter  protection:  Dunlap,  AVarficld  (imp.).  Progressive. 

Pespberries,  blackberries,  and  deivberries. — Planting  not  advised. 

Grapes. — The  conditions  are  not  well  adapted  to  grape  growing,  and  only  the 
very  hardy  sorts  are  likely  to  succeed  even  in  the  more  favorable  locations. 
The  ones  suggested  for  trial  are  Alaska,  Beta  No.  1,  Beta  No.  2,  Beta  No.  3, 
Bicolor,  Dakota,  and  Janesville. 


164  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 

District  IC 

Apples. — Early :  Yellow  Transparent,  Red  June,  San  Jacinto,  Maiden  Blush, 
Gravenstein,  Wealthy.  Midseason  :  Grimes,  Jonathan,  Kinnard.  Winter :  North- 
western, Texas  Red,  Winesap,  Missouri,  Arkansas  Black,  Ralls,  Limbertwig. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Seekel,  Kieffer. 

Peaches. — Alexander  (w  c),  Sneed  (w  c).  Triumph  (y  c),  Arp  (y  c).  Carman 
(w  fc),  Mamie  Ross  (w  fc),  Chinese  Cling  (w  c),  Elberta  (y  f),  Lee  {General 
Lee)   (w  c),  Krummel  (y  f).  Heath  (w  e). 

Plums. — Six  Weeks,  De  Soto,  Golden  (Gold),  America,  Hammer,  Poole  Pride, 
Pottawattamie,  Laire,  Robinson,  Wayland,  Whitaker,  Wildgoose,  Wolf,  Wooten. 

Cherries. — Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Raspberries. — Of  doubtful  value. 

Blackberries. — Crandall,  Early  Harvest. 

Dewberry. — Mayes  (Austin). 

Strawberries. — Klondike,  Arizona,  Michael. 

Blackberries,  dewberries,  and  strawberries  are  likely  to  fail  in  district  10 
without  irrigation,  on  account  of  limited  precipitation. 

Currants  and  gooseberries. — The  same  varieties  listed  for  district  7  are  sug- 
gested for  trial  in  district  10. 

Grapes. — White :  Hidalgo,  Krause,  Rommel,  Wapanuka.  Red :  Captivator, 
Ellen  Scott,  Headlight,  Marguerite.    Black :  Bailey,  Champenel,  Fern,  Husmann. 

District  11 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Early  Harvest,  Red  June,  Maiden 
Blush.  Midseason:  Wealthy,  Grimes,  Jonathan,  Delicious.  Winter:  Winesap, 
Missouri,  Rome  Beauty,  Arkansas  Black,  White  Pearmain. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Seekel,  Kieffer. 

Peaches. — Alexander  (w  c).  Triumph  (y  c),  Greensboro  (w  fc),  Carman 
(w  fc),  Ray  (w  fc),  Texas  (Texas  King)  (w  fc),  Mamie  Ross  (w  fc).  Belle 
(w  fc),  Elberta  (y  f ),  Late  Crawford  (y  f ),  Crothers  (w  fc),  Krummel  (y  f), 
Salwey  (y  f). 

Plums  and  cherries. — Very  few  grown.  Probably  the  varieties  suggested  for 
district  10  would  furnish  satisfactory  supplies  for  home  use. 

Little  information  exists  concerning  the  adaptability  of  bush-fruit  varieties 
to  this  district. 

Raspberries. — Of  rather  doubtful  value. 

Blackberries,  deirberries,  and  strawberries. — The  varieties  named  for  district 
10  are  suggested  for  district  11. 

Currants  and  gooseberries. — The  varieties  named  for  district  12  are  suggested 
for  trial  in  district  11. 

Grapes. — No  very  definite  suggestions  are  possible  with  reference  to  varieties. 
In  some  places  along  the  Pecos  river  and  the  Rio  Grande  a  few  Old  World 
varieties  are  grown,  of  which  the  Mission  is  the  principal  one.  Sultanina,  Sul- 
tana, Muscat,  Alexander,  and  Black  Hamburg  might  succeed,  but  all  of  these 
varieties  should  probably  have  winter  protection. 

District  12 

Apples. — Early:  Yellow  Transparent,  Red  June,  Red  Astraehan,  Early  Har- 
vest, Gravenstein.  Midseason:  Grimes,  Jonathan,  Ortley,  Wagener.  Winter: 
Delicious,  Rome  Beauty,  Banana,  Stayman  Winesap,  Winesap,  White  Pearmain, 
Arkansas  (Mammoth  Black  Twig),  Arkansas  Black. 

In  some  of  the  irrigated  valleys  in  Washington  the  Esopus  and  Yellow  New- 
town are  also  grown  but  they  do  not  occur  as  widely  as  most  of  the  varieties 
named  in  the  above  list.  The  Mcintosh  is  one  of  the  most  important  varieties  in 
the  Bitter  Root  Valley  in  Montana. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Flemish,  Anjou,  Winter  Nelis. 


THE  FARMER'S  ORCHARD         165 

Peaches. — Alexander  (w  c),  Early  Hale  (w  fc),  Early  Crawford  (y  f), 
Elberta  (y  f),  Muir  (y  f),  Late  Crawford  (y  f),  Lovell  (y  f). 

Plums. — Japanese  varieties :  Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  Wickson,  Sat- 
suma.  European  varieties:  Bradshaw,  Lombard,  Reine  Claude  {Green  Gage), 
Peach,  Columbia,  Washington,  Yellow  Egg,  Pond. 

Prunes. — Italian,  Silver,  Agen  (French),  Hungarian,  German,  Tragedy. 

Cherries. — Sour  varieties :  Richmond,  Montmorency.  Sweet  varieties :  Tar- 
tarian, Bing,  Napoleon  {Royal  Ann),  Republican,  Lambert. 

Apricots. — Moorpark,  Blenheim,  Royal,  Tilton.  Apricots  habitually  blossom 
very  early  in  the  spring;  hence  the  blossoms  are  often  killed  by  frosts  except  in 
very  favorable  localities. 

Raspberries. — Marlboro,  Cuthbert. 

Blackberries. — Eldorado,  Lawton,  Snyder,  Logan  (in  the  milder  valleys  of 
Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Washington). 

Dewberry. — Lucretia. 

Currants. — Perfection  (red).  White  Imperial. 

Goosebe rries. — 0 regon,  Poorman. 

Strawberries. — Dunlap,  Jucunda  (in  Colorado  and  Utah),  Clark,  Superb. 

Grapes. — In  the  milder  portions  of  district  12,  especially  in  the  southern  part, 
some  of  the  Vinifera,  or  Old  World,  varieties  may  be  grown,  the  Sultanina  being 
the  favorite  one.  In  some  parts  of  Idaho  and  Oregon,  with  winter  protection, 
the  more  hardy  varieties  of  the  Old  World  grapes  have  given  fairly  good  results. 
These  include  such  sorts  as  the  Black  Hamburg,  Chasselas  de  Fontainbleau, 
Flame  Tokay,  Jura  Muscat,  Sylvaner,  and  Zinfandel.  American  varieties  sug- 
gested for  trial  planting  in  this  district  are  Diamond,  Niagara,  Winchell,  Brigh- 
ton, Delaware,  Concord,  Isabella,  and  Worden. 

District  13 

Apples. — Most  of  the  varieties  in  the  list  for  district  12  occur  widely  in  district 
13.  However,  in  the  Puget  Sound  region  such  varieties  as  Alexander,  Tomp- 
kins King,  Mcintosh,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Baldwin,  and  Northern  Spy,  to- 
gether with  Gravenstein  and  Wagoner  of  the  list  named  for  district  12,  are  rela- 
tively the  most  important  sorts.  Most  of  the  above-named  sorts  also  are  grown 
to  a  limited  extent  in  other  parts  of  district  13  as  well  as  at  the  lower  altitudes 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Oregon. 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Howell,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Comice,  Winter  Nelis, 

Peaches,  plums,  prunes,  apricots,  and  cherries. — Substantially  the  same  as 
for  district  12. 

Raspberries. — Cuthbert  (red),  Antwerp  (red).  Golden  Queen  (yellow). 

Blackberries. — Eldorado,  Snyder,  Evergreen,  Logan. 

Dewberries. — Lucretia,  Gardenia. 

Currants. — Perfection  (red),  White  Imperial. 

Gooseberry. — Oregon. 

Strawberries. — Gold  Dollar  (early),  Marshall,  Magoun,  Oregon,  Clark  (for 
canning).  Superb. 

Grapes. — Conditions  in  western  Washington  are  not  favorable  for  grape  grow- 
ing. In  western  Oregon  the  same  varieties  suggested  for  district  12  may  be 
grown  without  winter  protection. 

District  14 

Apples. — While  there  is  considerable  difference  in  the  adaptability  of  varieties 
to  the  different  sections  of  California,  those  named  in  the  list  for  district  12  have 
a  wide  range  of  adaptability  and  comprise  the  most  important  ones  grown  in 
district  14,  aside  from  the  Yellow  Bellflower  and  Yellow  Newtown,  which  are 
gro^vn  largely  in  the  Pajaro  Valley,  and  the  Gravenstein,  which  is  produced  in 
large  quantities  about  Sebastopol,  in  Sonoma  County.  These  three  varieties 
make  up  a  large  proportion  of  the  commercial  apple  industry  of  California. 


166  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Pears. — Bartlett,  Howell,  Bosc,  Anjou,  Cornice,  Winter  Nelis. 

Peaches. — Alexander  (w  c).  Triumph  (y  fc).  Early  Hale  (\v  fc),  Early  Craw- 
ford (y  f),  Tuskena^  (y  c),  Foster  (y  c).  Decker  (w  f),  Elberta  (y  f),  Muir^ 
(y  f),  McKevitt  (w  c),  Late  Crawford  (y  f),  LovelP  (y  f),  Phillips^  (y  c), 
Salwey  (y  f). 

Plums. — Yellow  Egg,  Washington,  Jefferson,  Grand  Duke,  Climax,  Clyman, 
Wickson,  Kelsey,  Burbank,  Satsuma. 

Prunes. — Agen  (French),  Sugar,  Imperial,  Sergeant  {Role  de  Sergeant), 
Silver. 

Cherries. — Chapman,  Tartarian^,  Napoleon  {Royal  Ann),  Big,  Republican^, 
Lambert. 

Apricots. — Moorpark,  Blenheim,  Hemskirk,  Royal,  Tilton. 

Figs. — Adriatic,  Ischia,  Mission,  Marsellaise,  Smyrna  type*. 

Japanese  persimmons. — Goshio,  Hachya,  Hyakume,  Tanenashi,  Yemon. 

Rasj^berries. — Cuthbert  (northern  California),  Surprise  (southern  Califor- 
nia). 

Blackberries. — Mammoth  (self -sterile),  Logan,  Himalaya,  Lawton  (northern 
California),  Crandall  (southern  California  and  Arizona). 

Dewberry. — Gardenia. 

Currant. — Perfection   (northern  coast  section). 

Gooseberry. — Oregon  (northern  coast  section). 

Strau'berries. — Marshall  (Fresno  and  northward),  Oregon  (Fresno  and  north- 
ward). Brandy  wine  (southern  California  only),  Arizona  (in  Arizona). 

Grapes. — In  this  district  the  Vinifera,  or  Old  World,  varieties  are  grown 
nearly  to  the  exclusion  of  American  sorts.  On  account  of  the  destructiveness 
of  the  phylloxera  it  is  necessary  to  propagate  the  vines  on  stocks  or  roots  that 
are  resistant  to  that  insect  except  in  the  case  of  the  "direct  producers,"  which 
are  themselves  resistant  to  the  phylloxera. 

The  folloAving  varieties  are  named  for  district  14,  and  especially  for  Cali- 
fornia northward  from  a  region  somewhat  south  of  Los  Angeles:  White — 
Alexandria,  Green  Hungarian,  Palomino,  Sultanina;  red — Aramon,  Flame 
Tokay,  Barbarossa,  Chasselas  dc  Fontainbleau ;  black — Bellino,  Gross  Colman, 
Muscat  Hamburg,  Zinfandel. 

^  Used  largely  for  canning. 

^  Though  used  for  canning  and  for  shipping  fresh,  Muir  and  Lovell  are  of  impor- 
tance largely  for  drying. 

"  See  comment  on  page  00  concerning  the  self -sterility  and  intersterility  of  sweet 
cherry  varieties. 

*  Several  varieties  of  figs  of  the  Smyrna  type  are  grown  in  district  14.  In  parts  of 
California  they  are  being  planted  on  a  large  commercial  scale.  Perhaps  the  Lob  Ingir 
variety  is  one  of  the  most  important.  Smyrna  figs  require  caprification  in  order  to 
develop  fruit;  hence,  caprifig  trees  must  be  planted  with  Smyrna  figs.  The  ama- 
teur groAver  not  otherwise  informed  should  seek  further  advice  before  planting  figs 
of  this  type. 


CHAPTER  IX 


BUSH  FRUITS  AND   STRAWBERRIES 


Blackberry. — The  l)laekl)errY  is  becoiuin.^-  more  i^opular  every 
year,  but  in  many  farms  it  is  allowed  to  grow  wild  and  produce 
inferior  berries. 

Location. — The  canes  should  be  planted  where  there  is  con- 
siderable moisture  during  the  growing  and  ripening  season. 
Never  plant  Avliere  there  is  standing  water  in  winter.  The  loca- 
tion should  be  sheltered,  protected  from  late  frost  and  with  good 
air  drainage. 

Soil. —  Deep  sandy  loam  Avith  considerable  humus  in  it.  The 
soil  should  be  deep  and  capable  of  holding  moisture.  PIoav  sod 
land  in  the  fall.  If  the  subsoil  is  more  or  less  stiff,  subsoil  plow- 
ing is  highly  recommended. 

Planting. —  Plant  early  in  the  spring.  Set  slightly  deeper 
than  planted  in  the  nursery.  Remove  all  bruised  roots  and  cut 
the  top  back  to  five  to  seven  inches.  Rows  eight  feet  apart  and 
l^lants  four  feet  in  the  rows,  1,361  plants  per  acre. 

Fertilizing. — The  blackberry  is  a  gross  feeder  and  should  have 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  tons  of  stable  manure  per  acre.  Coarse 
bone  meal  mixed  with  the  manure  will  add  the  needed  plant  food, 
but  commercial  fertilizers  are  not  usually  recommended.  Legu- 
minous crops  such  as  coAvpeas,  clover,  etc.,  if  ploAved  under  each 
spring,  Avill  add  the  necessary  plant  food,  as  Avell  as  humus. 

Cultivation. —  CultiA^ate  early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the 
soil  is  fit  to  Avork.  Surface  cnltiA^atlon  should  be  frequent.  Keep 
down  all  suckers  and  Aveeds.  Keep  a  dust  mulch  over  the  sur- 
face. CultiA^ate  shalloAV,  and  discontinue  at  least  one  month 
before  freezing,  and  apply  the  mulch  of  manure. 


Results  of  Different  Degrees 

OF  Cultivation 

TREATMEXT 

FAR.MS 

ACRES 

AVERAGE 
QUARTS 
PER  ACRE 

AVERAGE 
INCOME 
PER  ACRE 

0 

S 

14.65 
14.83 
2.5S 

1,. son.  64 
1.7G6.55 
1.032.55 

$244.65 

153.46 
02.45 

Plowing  plus  cultivation 

Moderate  cultivation  .                   .  . 

:\".  y.  state  Coll.  of  Agriculture 


167 


168  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 


Training. —  There  are  many  practical 
and  they  vary  according  to  the  conditions 


Fig.  7S. —  Blackberry  canes  of  the  upright  type  tied 
to  two  wires,  one  placed  above  the  other. — U.  8. 
Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  79. — Blackberry  canes  of  the  upright  type  held 
between  two  wires. — V.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  80. —  Blackberry  canes  of  the  trailing  type 
trained  along  four  wires. — TJ.  8.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Fig.  81. —  Blackberry  canes  of  the  trailing  type 
trained  along  two  wires. — U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Fig.  82. — Blackberry  canes  of  the  upright  type  tied 
to  posts. — V.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


methods  of  training, 
under  which  the  black- 
berry is  grown.  One 
thing  is  certain  —  the 
canes  should  never  be 
allowed  to  run  wild. 
Cut  out  all  old  growths 
close  to  the  surface  of 
the  crown.  Pull  suck- 
ers and  keep  the  plant 
to  from  three  to  four 
vigorous  canes.  These 
may  be  pruned  back 
before  the  buds  start 
to  form,  three  to  four 
feet  from  the  crown. 
A  few  of  the  systems 
of  training  are  here 
shown  in  Figures  78, 
79,  80,  81  and  82,  as 
suggested  by  the  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

New  plants  may  be 
secured  by  digging  up 
a  sucker  with  part  of 
the  root  system  attach- 
ed, and  transplanting. 
Eoot  cuttings  three  to 
four  inches  long  and 
one-quarter  inch  in  di- 
ameter, taken  in  "the 
fall  or  early  spring, 
will  develop  satisfac- 
tory plants.  The  plan- 
tation should  be  re-es- 
tablished about  every 
six  to  seven  years. 

Whiter  protection. — 
Where  the  canes  are 
injured  by  very  severe 
frosts,  they  should  be 
bent  over  in  the  fall 


BUSH  FRCITS  AND  STRAWBERRIES  ir,9 

and  covered  with  soil  or  some  litter.    This  should  be  done  after 
the  canes  become  dormant.    Uncover  early  in  the  spring. 

Raspberry. — There  are  three  types  of  raspberries  —  the  red, 
having  upright  canes  and  producing  red  berries;  the  black, 
arched  canes  having  black  berries ;  and  the  purple,  arched  canes, 
producing  purj^le  berries. 

Location. — A  cool  climate  is  most  desirable,  and  good  air, 
drainage,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture  are  very  necessary. 
Better  on  a  hillside  than  on  level  land. 

Soil. — A  deep,  sandy  loam  with  considerable  humus  incor- 
porated is  considered  the  best,  but  some  of  the  varieties  do  Avell 
on  a  clay  loam.  Soil  should  l)e  plowed  deeply  and  the  surface 
soil  well  harrowed.  Wherever  a  root  crop  may  be  grown  the 
year  before  planting  the  canes,  it  is  recommended.  The  Aveeds 
are  destroyed  and  the  land  is  in  a  better  state  of  fertility. 

Planting. —  In  the  east  the  plants  are  set  in  the  spring,  and 
should  be  planted  so  as  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the  early  rains. 
The  red  varieties,  if  planted  in  the  fall  under  favorable  condi- 
tions, will  be  well  established  by  late  spring.  If  planted  in  the 
hill  system  and  staked,  set  the  plants  five  feet  apart  each  way, 
1,742  plants  per  acre.  If  the  hedge  system  is  used,  rows  should 
be  six  feet  apart,  with  plants  three  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  2,420 
plants  per  acre.  Black  raspberries  grown  under  the  linear  sys- 
tem (no  suckers  allowed  to  grow),  the  rows  are  eight  feet  apart, 
with  the  plants  four  feet  apart  in  the  rows,  and  1,361  plants  per 
acre.  For  the  red  varieties,  plant  three  inches  deeper  than  nur- 
sery planting.  For  the  black  and  purple  varieties,  plant  two 
inches  deeper.  On  planting,  cut  the  canes  back  to  five  to  six 
inches.     Pack  the  soil  firmly  about  the  roots. 

Fertilizers. — The  soil  should  be  in  a  high  state  of  fertility 
before  planting.  Annual  application  of -five  to  ten  tons  of  stable 
manure  per  acre,  depending  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  will  be 
sufficient.  Cover  crops,  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  are  most 
desirable.  Do  not  plant  the  seed  among  the  canes,  especially  of 
crops  that  live  over  winter. 

Cultivation. — A  thorough  tillage  is  necessary  to  keep  down  all 
grass  and  weeds.  A  dust  mulch  should  be  formed  in  order  to 
conserve  moisture.  Cultivate  the  surface  soil  during  the  harvest 
period  if  the  season  is  dry.    Avoid  late  tillage. 

Pruning  and  training. — The  manner  of  growth  has  much  to  do 
Avith  the  method  of  training,  and,  like  the  blackberry,  the  canes 
should  never  be  allowed  to  run  wild.  As  soon  as  berries  ripen 
the  canes  die.    Cut  out  all  dead  wood.    The  red  raspberry  sends 


170  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 

up  suckers;  the  black  and  purple  ones  do  not.  The  red  rasp- 
berries are  therefore  pruned  and  trained  differently  from  the 
black  or  purple  varieties.    Red  raspberries  are  frequently  raised 


Fig,  83. —  A  black  raspberry  plant  with  the  laterals  rooting  at  the  tips. — 
U.  k.  Dept.  of  Ayriculturc. 

under  the  hill  system.    The  canes  are  tied  to  a  stake,  five  to  seven 
canes  per  plant.    Pruning  back  of  the  tips  is  seldom  needed. 

The  hedge  system  is  very  common.    The  canes  are  allowed  to 
grow  in  a  hedge  row,  the  surface  between  the  rows  being  kept 

cultivated.  Often  wire 
supports  are  placed  so 
as  to  hold  the  canes  in 
position.  The  canes  un- 
der the  hedge  system 
should  never  be  allowed 
to  crowd. 

With  the  linear  sys- 
tem, all  the  suckers  are 
cut  out.  Tall  cane  va- 
rieties may  be  pruned 
back  to  four  feet  before 
the  buds  start.  The 
canes  may  be  held  erect 
by  trellises.  The  plants 
should  never  crowd. 
Practically  all  of  the  black  and  purple  raspberries  are  planted 
according  to  the  linear  system.  Young  canes  should  be  topped. 
Black  raspberries  should  be  cut  l)ack  to  from  eighteen  to  thirty 


j^r^ 


Fig.  84. —  The  black  raspberry  plant  shown  in 
Fig.  83,  after  it  had  been  pruned. — U.  8.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture. 


BUSH  FKUITS  AND  STRAWBERRIES 


171 


inches.  Toi^ping  tlio  canes  is  usually  done  before  picking,  or 
when  the  young  canes  reach  the  desired  height  in  the  S2:)ring. 
The  current  season's  growth  bears  the  fruit. 

The  Avinter  protection  is  similar  to  that  suggested  for  the 
blackberry  where  the  winters  are  very  severe.  The  duration  of 
the  iilantation  varies  from  six  to  fifteen  years  for  the  red  varie- 
ties, and  from  five  to  eight  for  the  black  and  purple  varieties. 

Blackberry  axd  Raspberry 


INSECTS 

COXTKOi: 

KEJLARKS 

Cane-borer 

Cut    ofT     drooping    tix^s 
and  buru 

Tip  girdled  by  ring  of  punctures 

Haw-Aj 

Spray   with   arsenate   of 
lead,  2  lbs.  to  50  gals, 
water    (paste).     Pow- 
dered hellebore,  dilute 
5  to  10  times  with  air- 
slaked  lime 

Feeds  on  tender  leaves  in  spring 

Blackberry  and  Raspberry 


DISEASES 

control 

remarks 

Wilt 

Set     out     only     healthy 
plants.      Destroy    dis- 
eased plants  by  burn- 
ing 

Both  red  and  black  varieties  of 
canes  wilt  and  dry 

Anthracnose 

Spray,     Bordeaux     mix- 
ture, 4-4-50,  clean  cul- 
tivation 

Apply  when  new  canes  are  6  to  8 
inches  high.  Gray,  scab-like 
spots  on  canes 

Crown  gall 

Set  healthy  plants.   Burn 
infected  plants 

Large  knots  on  ro(jt 

Rod  rust 

Big    up    infected    plants 
and  liurn 

Do  not  plant  on  same  ground  for 
several  years.  Red  rust  streaks 
on  canes 

Currant  and  gooseberry. — The  currant  is  one  of  the  oldest  of 
the  small  fruits  recorded  in  history  and  thrives  best  in  a  cool, 
moist  climate,  while  the  gooseberry  Avill  stand  more  lieat,  and 
both  of  these  bush  fruits  will  Avithstand  Ioav  temperatures. 

If  the  Avhite  pine  is  grown  commercially  in  your  district,  the 


172  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


law  requires  that  both  the  currant  and  gooseberry  be  eliminated 

from  your  garden. 

Location. —  In  the 
south  the  northern 
or  northeastern  slope 
is  considered  best. 
In  the  north  the 
plants  should  be  pro- 
tected  from  the 
Avinds.  Do  not  plant 
Avhere  there  is  con- 
tinual dampness ; 
have  a  free  circula- 
tion of  air. 

Soil—  The  best 
type  of  sc*  is  a  deep 
garden  loam  richly 
incorporated  with 
humus.  Sod  land 
should  be  prepared 
in  the  fall. 

Planting. —  Before 
setting  the  plants, 
cut  off  all  broken 
roots  and  cut  the  top 

back  to  about  ten  inches  from  the  croA^^ll.     Plant  one  to  two 

inches  deeper  than  where  propagated.     For  horse  tillage  the 

rows  should  be  six  feet  apart. 
The  plants  may  be  set  from 


Fig.  So. —  Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  the 
regions  where  currants  and  gooseberries  may  be 
groAATi.  The  area  marked  a  is  naturally  best 
adapted  to  currants  and  gooseberries;  in  6  the 
summers  are  too  long  and  too  hot  for  these 
fruits;  in  c  low  rainfall  limits  their  culture  ex- 
cept imder  irrigation,  though  these  fruits  are 
planted  in  many  dry-land  fruit  gardens  through- 
out this  region.  Although  the  area  marked  d 
Las  sufficient  rainfall  for  these  fruits,  most  of 
the  rain  occurs  during  the  winter  months  and 
the  moisture  must  be  carefully  conserved,  while 
e  is  both  too  dry  and  too  hot  in  summer.  The 
boundaries  of  these  areas  are  not  sharply  defined, 
but  grade  imperceptibly  into  each  other. — U.  8. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Fig,  86. — A  black  currant  bush  before 
pruning. — U.  S.  Dcpt.  of  Ayricul- 


FlG.  87. — The  black  currant  bush  shown 
in  Fig.  86  after  pruning.  The  canes 
left  are  all  one  to  two  years  old. — 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


BUSH  FRUITS  AND  STRAWBERRIES 


173 


four  to  five  feet  ajDart  in  the  rows  depending-  on  the  varieties. 
Currants  and  gooseberries  may  be  planted  between  apple, 
peach,  or  pear  trees,  or  grape  vines.  A  little  shade  is  not 
objectionable. 

Fertilizers. —  If  from  ten  to  fifteen  tons  of  stable  manure  are 
worked  into  the  soil  each  year,  no  conmiercial  fertilizer  will  be 
needed.  A  green  manure  is  also  highly  recommended.  Apply 
the  manure  in  the  fall.  Do  not  pile  it  up  around  the  crown. 
Spread  it  out  evenly  over  the  surface  soil.  There  is  no  "best'* 
commercial  fertilizer  recommended. 

Priminrf. —  Cut  back  vigorously  the  first  year  (red  and  white 
currants).  Fruit  is  borne  on  one-year-old  wood  and  on  the  spurs 
of  two-  to  three-year-old  wood.  Prune  out  three-year-old  w^ood 
and  let  the  young  wood  have 
room  to  develop.  Prune  so 
that  the  branches  are  arranged 
to  prevent  the  soiling  of  the 
fruit  during  heav}^  rains. 

Black  currants. — Remove  all 
wood  that  has  borne  two  years. 
One-year-old  wood  is  the  best 
for  bearing. 

Gooseberries. —  Prmie  simi- 
lar to  the  black  currant.  One- 
year-old  wood  and  one-year- 
old  spurs  bear  the  best  fruit. 
Remove  branches  lying  close 
to  the  ground. 

Cultivation. — Cultivate  early 
in  the  spring,  working  the  manure  into  the  soil.    Shallow  culti- 
vation is  best.    Keep  free  from  weeds  and  grasses. 

It  is  generally  recommended  that  plants  be  bought  from  a 
reliable  nurser^Tiian,  but  cuttings  may  be  made.  If  cuttings 
are  made  especially  of  the  currant,  one-year-old  wood  should 
be  used  from  six  to  eight  inches  long.  Store  in  a  box  of  moist 
sand  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring,  and  plant  out  in  rows,  plants 
three  to  five  inches  apart.  After  the  root  system  is  well  formed, 
plant  into  the  permanent  place.  Fall  planting  is  generally 
recommended. 


Fia.  88. — Larvae  of  currant  worm,  green 
dotted  with  black  spots. 


174  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMEES 


Fig.  89. — A  spot  disease  of  currant  leaf. — After  Ball. 
Currant  and  Gooseberry 


INSECTS 

CONTROL 

REJtARKS 

San  Jose  Scale 

1    gal.    lime    sulplmr    to    S 
gals,  water 

Spray  when  dormant 

Currant  worm 

Arsenate  of  lead,  1  lb,  pow- 
der   (2  lbs.  paste)    to  50 
gals,  water 

1    oz.    hellebore    to    1    gal. 
water 

Both  currants  and  gooseber- 
ries. Spray  when  worm 
first  appears. 

Second  brood 

Aphis 

1    oz.    nicotine    to    8    gals. 

water 
^Vhale  oil  soap 

Examine  under  foliage  for  in- 
sect. Sjiray  before  foliage 
curls 

Yellow  currant  fly 

Fall  fallowing  recommended 

Stings  fruit  of  both  currants 
and  gooseberries. 

BUSH  FEUITS  AND  STRAWBERRIES 

Currant  and  Gooseberry 


175 


DISEASES 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Cane  wilt 

Cut  out  and  burn  diseased 
wood.      Spray,   Bordeaux 
mixture 

The  dormant  spray  1-S  lime 
sulphur  is  recommended 

Leaf  spot 

Dormant  spray.     Lime  sul- 
phur     1-10.        Bordeaux 
mixture,  summer  spray 

Defoliates  plant.  Both  cur- 
rant and  gooseberries 

Anthracnose 

Same  as  leaf  spot 

Defoliates  plant  before  fruit 
is  ripened.  Seldom  on  the 
gooseberry 

Powdery  mildew 

1^/4   gals,   lime   sulphur   to 
50   gala,   water,    summer 
spray. 

Repeat  at  intervals  of  10- 
14  days 

Both  currants  and  gooseber- 
ries. Spray  as  doon  as 
buds  open 

STRAWBERRIES 

Strawberries.— There  is  no  small  fruit  that  will  bring  more 
delight  to  the  grower  than  the  strawberr5^  It  requires  little 
si^ace  and  if  properly  raised  will  pay  well  for  the  soil  occupied. 

This  favorite  of  all  small  fruits  will  thrive  in  various  kinds  of 
soil.  It  may  be  found  in  a  sandy  loam  to  a  clay  loam  bear- 
ing finely  flavored  berries.  The  success  or  failure  in  the  culture 
of  the  strawberry  depends  not  so  much  upon  the  soil  as  upon 
the  plant  food  available,  the  moisture,  and  the  method  of  culture. 

All  soil,  no  matter  whether  it  is  sandy  or  a  clay  formation, 
must  have  a  large  amount  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  it. 
This  will  aid  in  retaining  the  necessary  moisture  to  mature  the 
crop  as  well  as  in  giving  the  root  system  a  free  feeding  surface. 
AVhile  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  does  increase  the  activity 
of  ferments  and  puts  plant  food  in  a  condition  in  which  the 
growing  plant  may  use  it,  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  add  too 
much  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda,  which  will  cause 
the  plant  to  develop  foliage  and  not  fruit. 

If  the  soil  is  a  sandy  loam  that  has  been  used  for  other  crops 
for  one  or  more  years,  add  two  or  three  inches  of  straw  manure 
(horse  or  cow)  and  plow  or  spade  this  under  in  the  spring.  The 
manure  should  be  well  decayed  and  incorporated  into  the  soil 
so  as  to  prevent  the  leaking  out  of  both  water  and  liquid  manure. 


176  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  strawberry  plants  should  be  set  as  early  as  possible  in  order 
to  get  the  benefit  of  the  early  spring  rains. 

If  the  soil  is  a  clay  loam,  and  in  sod,  add  a  heavy  application 
of  manure  and  turn  the  sod  under  in  the  fall.  Leave  the  furrows 
in  the  rough  over  winter  so  that  the  frost  and  air  may  not  only 
hasten  the  decay  of  the  vegetable  matter  and  loosen  the  soil,  but 
destroy  grubs  and  other  enemies  that  are  exposed.  It  is  not  a 
good  practice  to  plant  strawberries  on  freshly  plowed  sod  land. 
Add  a  sprinkling  of  manure  over  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the 
spring  and  work  it  into  the  first  three  inches.  A  sprinkling  of 
bone  meal  along  the  row  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set  Avill  add 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  plant  foods  to  the  strawberry.  If 
the  soil  has  a  tendency  to  be  sour,  shown  by  the  growth  of  the 
bitter  weed  or  sorrel,  a  little  lime  may  be  added  to  the  soil  in  the 
fall.  Both  lime  and  land  plaster  are  very  objectionable  in  the 
strawberry  bed  after  the  plants  are  set. 

It  is  difficult  to  recommend  any  special  commercial  fertilizer 
or  combination  because  of  the  great  variations  in  the  availability 
of  plant  foods  in  different  soils.  On  the  other  hand,  a  combina- 
tion of  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  nitrogen,  or  each  separately, 
has  been  applied  to  certain  soils  with  good  results.  The  appli- 
cation of  conmiercial  fertilizers  is  a  local  problem  and  must  be 
solved  by  the  grower. 

All  land  must  be  naturally  or  artificially  drained  from  one 
and  one-half  to  two  feet  in  depth.  The  strawberry  will  not  sur- 
vive a  year  in  wet  soil.  After  this  first  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant conditions  necessary,  drainage,  is  looked  after,  by  pre- 
paring the  soil  so  that  it  is  made  as  fine  as  a  seed  bed  for  six 
inches  in  depth.  Level  culture  is  preferable  to  ridging  the  rows. 
The  soil  is  more  easily  worked  and  there  is  less  danger  of  the 
plants  wilting  during  a  dry  season. 

In  order  to  make  a  good  start  at  the  very  beginning,  secure  the 
best  plants  possible  from  a  reliable  firm. 

The  best  time  to  plant  is  early  in  the  spring  after  the  frosts 
are  out  of  the  ground.  There  is  always  sufficient  rain  to  sustain 
the  plant  until  it  becomes  established.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
berries  are  desired  the  year  after  planting  and  you  have  failed 
to  complete  your  plans  in  the  spring,  set  the  plants  in  August, 
supply  the  much-needed  moisture  at  that  season  and  protect  the 
plants  during  the  winter  and  you  will  have  berries  the  following 
June.  In  the  South,  where  the  winters  are  mild  and  the  soil  is 
a  sandy  loam,  fall  planting  is  very  satisfactory. 

On  receiving  the  plants  from  the  nursery,  remove  the  damp 


BUSH  FEUITS  AND  STRAWBEKRIES 


177 


moss,  cut  the  band  that  holds  the  bunch  of  twenty-five  or  fifty 
plants  together,  make  a  furrow  and  spread  the  plants  out  in  it. 
Cover  the  roots  with  soil  up  to  the  crown.  The  air  circulating- 
soon  dries  the  foliage,  which  prevents  dis- 
ease, and  the  plants  retain  their  freshness 
until  their  permanent  home  is  ready. 


Fig.  !)(). —  A   strawberry  plant,  showing  a  runner  that  iias  developed 
a  new  plant. — After  Leubert. 

The  distance  of  planting  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the 
method  of  cultivation  used.    If  the  solid  or  matted  row  method 


Fig.  91. —  Strawberry  plants  set  at  different  depths  in  the  soil.  At  the  left  is 
shown  a  plant  set  too  deep,  which  will  be  likely  to  smother  and  die;  in  the 
center  is  one  set  at  the  proper  depth  and  at  the  right  is  a  plant  set  too 
shallow,  which  will  dry  out. — U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

is  practiced  and  a  horse  cultivator  is  used  between  the  rows  they 
should  be  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  feet  apart.  If  the 
hand  cultivator  is  used  the  rows  ma}^  be  two  feet  apart.  For 
especially  fine,  large  berries,  the  single  plant  in  a  place  or  hill, 
all  runners  kept  cut  off,  will  be  the  best  method  of  planting.    The 


178   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

rows  should  be  two  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  fifteen  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  The  berries  grown  in  this  way  are  usually 
more  perfect,  easier  to  pick,  and  the  plants  are  healthier  on 
account  of  having  more  air  and  sunshine.  The  strength  of  the 
plant  is  not  allowed  to  go  to  runners  and  in  this  way  there  is  a 
more  vigorous  growth. 

The  double-matted  row-  is  formed  by  placing  the  rows  three 
and  one-half  to  four  feet  apart  and  the  plants  two  feet  apart  in 
the  rows.  One  or  two  runners  are  layered  in  direct  line  with  the 
parent  plant  in  the  row,  and  two  sets  of  runners  are  layered  on 
each  side  of  the  parent  plant.  With  this  method  the  row  soon 
becomes  matted.  All  extra  runners  should  be  cut  off  and  the 
space  between  the  rows  kept  cultivated. 


Strawberry  Plants  Per  Acre  with  Different  Spacings 


DISTANCE   APART 

PLANTS   TO 
ACRE 

DISTANCE   APART 

PLANTS   TO 
ACRE 

2  feet  bv  1  foot 

21,780 
14,520 
14,520 
12,446 

21/^  feet  by  II/2  feet 

3  feet  by  2  feet 

3  feet  by  3  feet 

3  feet  by  4  feet 

11,616 

2  feet  by  ly,  feet            ... 

7,260 

3  feet  by  1  foot 

3V>  feet  by  1  foot 

4,840 
3,630 

Before  setting  the  plants  remove  all  poorly  colored  or  broken 
leaves  from  the  outer  and  lower  edge  of  the  crown  and  prune  off 
some  of  the  roots  if  they  are  very  long.  Set  the  root  system  so 
it  is  free  and  not  wadded  in  a  ball.  All  the  roots  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  cro^\Ti  should  be  in  the  soil  and  care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  keep  the  heart  and  upperpart  of  the  crown  above  the  soil. 

The  first  season,  if  the  plants  are  set  in  the  spring,  remove  all 
bloom  and  start  cultivating  shortly  after  the  plants  are  set. 
Cultivate  after  a  rain,  but  not  when  the  soil  sticks  to  the  imple- 
ment. No  practice  is  so  valuable  to  the  growth  and  production 
of  the  strawberry  as  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation. 

The  bisexual  (B)  varieties  have  both  the  male  and  female 
organs  in  the  flower,  and  are  therefore  self-pollinated,  while  the 
female  flower,  having  only  the  female  organs,  if  not  pollinated, 
will  not  bear  fruit. 

The  following  list  of  standard  varieties  is  recommended. 
From  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  to  two  hundred  plants  will 
gupply  a  family  of  six  with  berries  through  the  season : 


BUSH  FRUITS  AND  STRAWBERRIES  179 


VAKIETIKS 

AO.   OF   PLANTS 

Extra  Early 

Early  Ozark         (B)                                                    

25 

Early 

Dr.  Barrel             ( B ) 

25 

Clyde                     ( B ) 

25 

Medium 

Wm    Belt             (B) 

25 

Bubach                  ( B ) 

25 

Late 

Brandywine          (B)                                   

50 

Gandy                    ( B ) 

25 

Everbearers 

Superb                   ( B ) 

25 

Peerless                 ( B )  .  .                                     .            

25 

Americans             (B)                                                                .... 

25 

It  should  be  remembered  that  varieties  adaptable  to  one  sec- 
tion of  the  country  might  be  a  complete  failure  in  another. 

AVater  is  necessary  to  mature  a  crop;  it  is  definitely  knowni 
that  it  takes  six  hundred  barrels  per  acre  to  mature  a  crop  after 
the  fruit  is  set.  Seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  green 
plant  is  water ;  therefore,  never  let  the  strawberry  plant  suffer 
from  the  lack  of  sufficient  moisture.  Evening  is  the  best  time  to 
water  the  plants  and  get  the  moisture  to  the  roots.  Sprinkling 
the  surface  of  the  soil  means  nothing.  All  during  the  night  the 
moisture  will  work  into  the  soil  and  the  following  morning  the 
cultivator  should  be  kept  busy  forming  a  dust  mulch  to  hold  the 
water  in  the  soil. 

As  the  berries  are  forming,  stop  cultivating,  because  any  dust 
is  liable  to  deform  the  fruit.  Place  clean  straw,  hay,  leaves  or 
other  litter  under  the  fruit  to  keep  it  clean,  also  to  act  as  a  mulch. 
After  the  berries  have  been  picked,  remove  the  mulch  and  con- 
tinue to  cultivate.  Do  not  let  the  strawberry  bed  become  weedy 
just  because  the  bearing  season  is  over. 

The  winter  mulch  of  straw  or  light  manure  should  be  placed 
over  the  plants  after  they  are  fully  ripened  and  after  the  first 
two  or  three  light  frosts.  Early  in  the  spring  after  the  severe 
frosts  have  passed,  remove  the  mulch  and  start  cultivating.  It 
is  generally  advisable  to  start  a  new  bed  every  three  years,  but 
an  old  bed  may  be  kept  in  bearing  if  properly  fed  and  protected. 

The  first  year  such  crops  as  dwarf  sweet  corn,  radish,  or 
spinach  may  be  grown  between  the  rows. 

The  ever-bearing  varieties  are  planted  and  treated  in  the  same 
way  as  the  spring-bearing  sorts  mth  one  exception,  that  the 


180  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


bloom  is  kept  picked  off  until  about  July  1st.  These  ever-bearing 
sorts  seem  to  be  very  handy,  can  stand  some  drought  and  exces- 
sive heat,  as  well  as  wet  weather  and  severe  frosts. 

The  three  essentials  that  should  never  be  overlooked  before 
going  into  the  culture  of  strawberries  are,  first,  the  best  variety 
of  strong,  vigorous,  pure  bred  plants  suited  to  the  soil ;  second, 
a  well-drained  and  prepared  soil ;  and  third,  thorough  and  fre- 
quent cultivation. 

Insects 


INSECTS 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

White  grub 

Full  plowing  before  plant- 
ing 

Eats  roots 

Diseases 

DISEASES 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Leaf  spot 

Spray  after  growth  begins. 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 
Eliminate  diseased  beds 

Deep    purple    spots,    become 
gray.       Spray    3-4    times 
during  season 

CHAPTER   X 


VINE  FRUITS 

Grapes. — The  farmer's  garden  is  hardly  complete  Avithout  a 
few  of  the  best  grapes  which  may  be  grown  in  the  ojien  or  close 
to  the  house.  This  may  not  be  an  ideal  site,  and  the  soil  may  not 
be  a  perfect  type,  but  the  vines  i^roduce.  There  are  also  farmers 
who  produce  grapes  successfully  on  a  commercial  scale. 

Location. —  AVliere  the  grape  is  grown  commercially,  the 
vineyards  are  located  near  large  bodies  of  Avater,  where  the 
temperature  is  more  or  less  equalized.  Air  drainage  is  very 
important,  and  many  of  the  vineyards  are  on  the  side  hills. 

Soil. — There  are  many  types  of  soil  in  which  the  grape  is 
grown  successfullj".  A  loam  more  or  less  sandy,  warm,  well- 
drained  and  pliable  is  ideal.  The  subsoil  should  be  porous.  A 
heavy  clay  soil  should  be  avoided.  The  soil  should  be  moder- 
ately rich  and  incorporated  Avith  humus.  A  clean  cultivation  in 
desired  to  free  the  soil  of  weeds  and  grass  before  planting. 

Planting. — Early  spring  plant- 
ing is  generally  recommended, 
especially  for  the  north.  Vines 
of  one  year's  growth,  healthy, 
free  from  insects  and  disease 
should  be  planted.  Coimiiercial 
vineyards  are  planted  eight  by 
eight  feet,  680  vines  per  acre,  or 
ten  by  ten  feet,  435  vines  per 
acre.  Have  the  rows  straight. 
Interplant  varieties  that  have  im- 
perfect flowers.  Prune  back  the 
roots  a  little,  so  that  they  are  not 
crowded  in  the  hole,  and  cut  the 
top  back  to  three  to  four  buds  at 
the  time  of  planting.  A  finely 
pulverized,  rich  soil  should  be 
packed  firmly  about  the  roots. 

If  only  a  few  vines  are  to  be 
planted  close  to  the  house  Avhere 
the  soil  is  usually  filled  in  and 
very  poor,   dig  holes   four  feet 

181 


Fig.  92. —  A  grapevine  showing  the 
method  of  pruning  roots  ready 
for  planting. — U.  /S'.  De2)t.  of  Ag- 
riculture. 


182  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


square  and  three  feet  deep.  Loosen  up  the  subsoil.  AVlienever 
possible,  secure  old  plaster  from  a  house  that  is  being  torn  down, 
mix  one-fourth  part  plaster  with  one-half  part  of  garden  loam 

and  decayed  sod,  and  one-fourth 
part  of  bone  meal  and  decayed 
manure.  Mix  these  and  fill  the 
hole  to  within  one  and  one-half 
feet  of  the  surface.  Fill  the  re- 
maining space  with  garden  loam 
and  decayed  sod. 

Plant  the  vine  in  the  prepared 
hole  early  in  the  spring.  Train 
to  a  trellis  at  least  one  foot  from 
the  wall  of  the  house. 

Fertilisers. —  Soils  in  which 
considerable  humus,  especially 
crimson  clover  or  vetch,  have 
been  turned  under,  need  little  fer- 
tilization. Stable  manure  and 
legumes  furnish  the  most  impor- 
tant fertilizer,  nitrogen,  for  the 
grape.  No  special  commercial 
fertilizer  can  be  recommended  on 
account  of  the  variability  of  the 
soils.  A  little  nitrate  of  soda  ap- 
plied to  each  vine  each  year  after 
growth  has  started  wdll  give  good 
results. 

Cultivation. —  Clean  culture 
shows  up  to  advantage  in  the 
vineyard.  It  keeps  the  weeds 
down,  allows  the  air  to  get  into 
the  soil,  liberates  plant  food,  eon- 
serves  the  moisture  and  keeps 
^'''■vfne"~of  mffexe^nt  ages, "showing  the  soil  in  a  good  physical  condi- 

ihe  method  of  pruning  by  the  re-    tiou.      As   the   viueS   mature,   the 

rthirr;™;,  c;  Sh  ^  cultivation  must  be  lighter.    Do 

D,  an  unpruned  vine  in  its  fourth    not     injure     the     rOOtS     Or     viue. 

^^^^'  "WTiere  possible,  sow  a  cover  crop 

in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  of  some  crop  that  may  easily  be 
destroyed  between  the  vines  by  cultivation. 

Pruning  and  training. —  One  must  keep  in  mind  that  the  fruit 
is  born  on  the  present  season's  wood.    To  have  a  fine  quality 


VINE  FRUITS 


183 


and  large-sized  berry,  do  not  allow  too  many  buds  to  develop  and 
thin  out  the  clusters  of  grapes.    Prune  early  in  the  spring  before 


Fig.  04. — Unpruned  grapevine  trained  by  the  six-arm  renewal 
system. 

the  sap  flows.    Figures  93  to  98  will  give  some  idea  of  pruning 


and  systems  of  training. 
Bulletin  No.  471,  United 
States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

The  grapes  are  some- 
times inclosed  in  two- 
pound  manila  paper 
sacks  to  protect  the  ber- 
ries from  mechanical 
injury,  birds,  insects, 
and  early  frosts.  Small 
holes  should  be  made  at 
the  bottom  of  the  bag 
to  allow  drainage  of  wa- 
ter that  might  enter. 
The  top  is  folded  over 
and  pinned. 

The  grape  is  easily 
propagated  by  cuttings 


For  further  information,  see  Farmer 's 


n.5. — Pruned  grapevine  trained  by  the  six-arm 
renewal  system. 


184  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


jwg'j-;-'''' 


Fig.  96. — Vines  headed  back  for  different  systems  of 
training:  A,  the  spur  and  fan  systems;  B,  the 
four-arm  renewal  system;  C,  the  two-arm  Knif- 
fin,  ]\Iunson,  lunbrella,  and  overhead  systems. — 
TJ.  iS.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


eight  to  fifteen  inches 
in  length,  previous 
year's  groAvth.  Cut 
close  to  lower  bud, 
bunch  with  lower 
ends  even,  invert  in 
a  trench  and  cover 
with  six  inches  of 
sand  or  soil  in  the 
fall  of  the  year.  The 
wood  should  be  dor- 
mant and  secured  be- 
fore it  is  frozen.  In 
the  spring,  the  butt 
ends  will  have  cal- 
loused. Plant  in  a 
propagating  row,  al- 
lowing two  to  three 
of  the  upper  buds  to 
project. 


^^Sl^ 

l   l^ 

1 

^^^^^^ 

fc^^J^S 

-,..   -MW^-^  -  ^^    .^,. 

'. 

Fig.  97. —  A  vine  pnmed  according  to  the  high  renewal  system  and  tied.— 
New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 


VINE  FRUITS 


185 


Fig. 


98. —  A  vine  trained  aorording  to  the  high  renewal  system  before  prun- 
ing.— 'New  YorJc  State  College  of  Agriculture. 


Canes  may  also  be  layered  in  the  soil,  fall  and  spring,  and 
severed  from  parent  plant  after  tlie^  various  shoots  appear,  and 
the  canes  form  roots.  Severing  from  the  parent  plant  should  be 
done  when  the  vine  is  dormant. 

Winter  ijyotectlon. —  AVhere  the  winters  are  severe,  the  vine 
is  released  from  its  support  and  covered  mth  a  little  soil  which 
should  be  removed  early  in  the  spring.  This  practice  is  seldom 
necessary  where  the  vine  is  protected  from  the  driving  winds  of 
winter.  Txsects  op  the  Grape 


INSECTS 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Floa  beetle 

Hand    pick.      Spray   4   lbs. 
arsenate  of  lead   (paste) 
to  100  gals.  Bordeaux 

The  Bordeaux  checks  the 
black  rot.  The  poison  kills 
the  larva  of  the  beetle. 

Leaf     hopper 

Spray  under  side  of  leaves, 
"biaek  leaf  40",  %  pint- 
100  gals,  water  and  5  lbs, 
soap 

Found  sucking  sap  on  under 
side  of  leaves.  Spray  about 
July  1.  Repeat  in  10  to  14 
days 

Root  worm 

Cultivate  close  to  vines  in 
June.    Spray  after  beetle 
appears,   3   lbs.   arsenate 
of    lead    to    50    gals,    of 
water 

White  grub,  feeds  on  roots. 
This  solution  should  be 
sweetened   with    1    gal.    of 

molasses. 

Rose  chafer 

Arsenate  of  lead  spray.     4 
lbs.  to  50  gals,  water 

Destroys  blossom  and  foliage. 
Add  1  gal.  molasses 

186  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Diseases  of  the  Grape 


DISEASES 

CO>'TROL 

REJIARKS 

Black  rot 

Bordeaux   mixture,   4-4-50 
wlien     growth     is     8-10 
inches       long.         Second 
spray   after   blossom    pe- 
riod is  over.    Third  when 
berries  are  size  of  peas 

Burn  all  mummy  berries. 
Plow  under  diseased  fruit 
and  leaves  early  in  the 
spring.  Sometimes  a  4th 
sjDray  is  necessary  10-14 
days  after  the  3rd 

Downy  mildew 

Bordeaux  4-4-50 

Spray  just  before  rainy  sea- 
son 

Fig.  99. —  Grape  leaf  showing  patches  of  do^vny  mildew. 


CHAPTER   XT 

IXSECTICIDES  AXD  FUXGICIDES* 

Ammoniacal  copper  carbonate. — Tliis  is  not  as  good  for  gen- 
eral purposes  as  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  is  used  instead  of 
Bordeaux  wlien  it  is  desirable  to  avoid  the  spotting  of  leaves  or 
ripening  fruit.  It  is  prepared  as  follows :  "Weigh  out  the  proper 
amount  (five  ounces)  of  copper  carbonate,  and  use  just  enough 
ammonia  to  dissolve  it.  If  the  ammonia  is  strong  it  should  first 
be  diluted  with  water.  Then  add  the  proper  amount  of  water 
(fifty  gallons). 

Arsenate  of  lead. — Arsenate  of  lead  is  one  of  the  most  valued 
of  the  arsenical  insecticides.  It  has  in  many  cases  entirely  dis- 
placed Paris  green  with  orchardists,  and  there  are  at  least  three 
good  reasons  for  it : 

1.  The  arsenate  of  lead  has  great  adhesive  qualities.  It  will 
not  wash  off,  even  in  heavy  showers  of  rain.  Some  of  our  experi- 
ments here  at  the  Station  showed  the  presence  of  this  arsenate 
on  the  leaf,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  kill  insects,  ten  weeks  after 
spraying. 

2.  It  can  be  used  in  any  strength  without  burning  the  foliage 
of  the  plant  sprayed. 

3.  It  has  some  fungicidal  properties  that  are  increased  when 
added  to  lime  sulphur. 

Arsenate  of  lead  can  be  made  at  home  or  bought  in  paste  form 
on  the  market.  Ordinarily  it  w^ill  be  easier  to  buy  the  prepared 
material. 

Formula  for  TTome-iiade  Preparation: 

22  ozs.  acetate  of  lead   (sugar  of  lead)   dissolved  in  2  galldn.s 
of  warm  water  in  a  wooden  pail. 
S  ozs.  arsenate  of  soda  dissolved  in  1  gallon  warm  Avater  in 
another  wooden  pail. 

These  two  solutions,  poured  together,  make  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  poison  for  fifty  gallons  of  spray. 

Three  pounds  of  the  commercial  paste  are  recommended  for 
fifty  gallons  of  sjDray. 

Arsenite  of  lime. — This  is  essentially  a  home-made  prepara- 

'  By  permission  of  Minnesota  Experiment  Station. 

187 


188  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


tion.    If  made  properly,  it  is  just  as  good  as  Paris  green,  and  is 
much  cheaper.    The  best  method  of  preparation  is  as  follows : 

Formula  for  Stock  Solution: 
White  arsenic,  1  pound. 
Crystal  sal  soda,  4  pounds. 
Water,  1  gallon. 

Boil  these  in  an  iron  kettle  for  twenty  minutes,  or  until  thor- 
oughly dissolved.  The  Jcettle  7nust  he  kept  exclusively  for  this 
purpose.  The  soluble  material  obtained  is  arsenite  of  soda,  and 
can  be  stored  away  in  jugs  or  bottles,  labeled  ''poison,"  for 
future  use.  For  forty  or  fifty  gallons  of  spray,  take  one  and 
one-half  to  two  pints  of  this  solution  and  four  pounds  of  freshly 
slaked  lime.  Dilute  the  lime  and  strain ;  then  add  the  stock  solu- 
tion.   Pour  into  the  spray  barrel  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Bordeaux  mixture. — This  is  made  of  copper  sulphate  (blue- 
stone),  quicklime  and  Avater.    It  is  used  in  various  strengths,  the 

5-5-50  being  proba- 
bly that  in  most 
common  use,  al- 
though the  4-4-50 
will  probably  give 
equally  good  re- 
sults. 5-5-50  sim- 
ply means  that  five 
pounds  of  copper 
sulphate,  five  pounds 
of  lime  and  fifty  gal- 
lons of  Avater  have 
been  used  in  the 
preparation  of  the 
spray.  In  the  same 
way  2-^-50  would  mean  that  two  pounds  of  copper  sulphate, 
two  pounds  of  lime  and  fifty  gallons  of  water  have  been  used. 
The  number  of  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  is  indicated  by  the 
first  figure,  the  number  of  pounds  of  lime  by  the  second,  and 
the  number  of  gallons  of  water  by  the  third. 

One  of  two  methods  may  be  used  in  making  Bordeaux.  Either 
it  may  be  made  directly,  or  stock  solutions  may  be  made  and 
these  stock  solutions  used  whenever  the  fungicide  is  needed.  In 
making  the  spray  directly,  take  five  pounds  of  copper  sulphate, 
put  it  into  a  coarse  gunnysack,  and  hang  it  in  a  barrel  contain- 
ing twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  Being  suspended,  the  copper 
sulphate  will  dissolve  much  more  readily  than  if  put  into  the 


Fig.  100.— Making  Bordeaux  mixture.  The  two  men 
pour  together  the  diluted  lime  milk  and  the  blue- 
stone  solution  into  a  barrel  or  spray  tank  and  stir 
well. — Farmers'  Bulletin  2Ji3. 


i 


INSECTICIDES  AXD  FUNGICIDES  189 

bottom  of  the  barrel.  Now  slake  carefull}^  five  pounds  of  good 
quicklime,  using  just  enough  water  to  slake  it  slowly.  Be  sure 
that  the  lime  is  not  at  all  air-slaked.  AVhen  the  lime  is  slaked, 
add  enough  'water  to  make  twenty-five  gallons.  Now  stir  it  care- 
fully and  then  pour  together  the  copper  sulphate  solution  and 
the  milk  of  lime.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  slight  excess  of  lime, 
since  it  prevents  any  injurious  action  of  the  co]iper  salts.  If 
there  is  an  excess  of  copper,  foliage  injury  is  liable  to  result. 
Therefore,  two  simple  tests  should  be  made  to  determine  whether 
or  not  the  mixture  is  safe  to  use.  Take  a  piece  of  newly-filed 
iron  or  steel  and  put  it  into  the  mixture  for  about  a  minute.  If 
it  has  a  copper  coating  when  it  is  taken  out,  there  is  an  excess  of 
copper,  and  more  lime  should  be  added.  To  determine  whether 
or  not  there  is  a  sufficient  amount  of  lime  in  the  mixture,  pour 
some  of  it  into  a  flat  dish  and  blow  on  it  for  a  few  moments.  If 
a  film  forms  on  the  surface,  enough  lime  is  present;  if  not,  more 
should  be  added. 

In  making  stock  solutions,  dissolve  copper  sulphate  in  water 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  one  gallon  of  water.  Slake  the  lime 
slow^ly  in  another  receptacle,  and,  Avhen  slaked,  add  water  until 
a  thick  lime  milk,  one  pound  to  one  gallon  of  water,  is  formed. 
When  using  the  stock  solution  in  making  up  the  spray  mixture, 
one  gallon  of  copper  sulphate  solution  represents  one  pound  of 
copper  sulphate,  and  one  gallon  of  lime  water  represents  a  like 
amount — more  or  less,  depending  on  the  quantity  of  water  used 
in  making  the  stock  solution.  The  proper  amount  of  stock  solu- 
tions should  be  diluted  separately  before  they  are  poured 
together.  The  stock  solution  of  lime  should  be  first  run  through 
a  fine-mesh  sieve,  to  remove  all  lumps  which  might  clog  the 
nozzle  of  the  sprayer. 

Carbon  bisulphid. — This  is  a  very  inflammable  liquid,  that 
volatizes  readily  when  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  one  of  the  gase- 
ous insecticides  used  against  grain  weevils,  etc. 

Copper  sulphate  wash. — 

Formula  : 

Copper  sulphate,  3  pounds. 
Water,  50  gallons. 

This  is  used  as  a  wash  on  dormant  trees,  for  the  prevention  of 
such  diseases  as  apple  scab.  It  must  never  be  used  on  trees  after 
the  buds  have  burst. 

Corrosive  sublimate. — 

FORMTTLA : 

^Mercury  bichloride  (corrosive  sublimate),  2  ounces. 
Water,  15  gallons. 


190  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  TRACTICAL  FARMERS 

This  is  an  extremely  poisonous  mixture,  and  should  be  handled 
with  great  care.  It  is  very  effective  against  potato  scab.  It 
should  not  be  made  in  tin  vessels,  as  it  corrodes  them. 

Crude  petroleum. — This  is  an  oily,  inflannnable  liquid,  that, 
when  refined,  yields  such  products  as  paraffin,  lubricating  oil, 
kerosene,  etc.  A  petroleum  having  a  specific  gravity  of  forty- 
three  degrees  (Baume  scale)  is  an  excellent  insecticide  for  scale 
insects.  In  fact,  it  was  used  very  successfully  against  the  San 
Jose  scale  until  the  lime-sulphur  wash  was  found  to  be  better. 

Formalin.— 

Formula  : 

Formalin   (40%  formakleliyde) ,  %  pound. 
Water,  15  gallons. 

This  is  used  in  treating  seed  for  prevention  of  such  diseases 
as  potato  scab. 

Hellebore. —  This  is  a  stomach  or  internal  insecticide.  It  is 
not  poisonous  to  man,  as  are  the  arsenical  insecticides,  and  there- 
fore is  used  where  there  is  danger  of  poison  remaining  on  parts 
to  be  eaten.  It  is  often  used  on  currants  and  gooseberry  bushes 
when  the  berries  are  beginning  to  ripen.  This  material  can  be 
used  in  the  dry  form,  or  as  a  spray  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
ounces  to  a  gallon. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas. —  This  gas  is  made  by  dropping  potas- 
sium cyanide  into  sulphuric  acid  and  water.  The  fumes  are 
deadly  to  all  kinds  of  animal  life,  and  the  gas  is  used  only  in 
special  cases.  As  this  gas  is  fatal  to  human  life  as  well  as  to 
insect  life,  it  should  be  used  only  by  an  expert. 

Iron  sulphide  mixture. —  This  is  a  comparativeh^  neiv,  but — 
according  to  Circular  No.  58  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  —  a  very  promising 
fungicide.  It  was  tried  on  apples  especially,  and  gave  splendid 
results  in  preventing  fungous  diseases.  It  also  proved  non- 
injurious  to  the  fruit.  In  preparing  this  fungicide,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  a  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixture  be  prepared,  as 
hereinafter  described;  except  that  ten  pounds  of  lime  and  ten 
pounds  of  sulphur  are  used.  The  mixture  is  diluted  to  forty 
gallons,  and  then  three  pounds  of  iron  sulphate  (copperas) 
dissolved  in  about  eight  gallons  of  water,  is  added. 

Kerosene. —  This  is  an  excellent  contact  insecticide.  The 
merest  particle  of  it,  coming  in  contact  A\^th  any  part  of  the 
anatomy  of  an  insect,  is  fatal.  Pure  kerosene,  however,  will 
ordinarily  burn  the  leaves  of  plants,  consequently  it  is  only 
recommended  to  be  used  in  the  pure  form  when  trees  are  dor- 


IXSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES  191 

mant,  or  against  insects  off  of  plants,  for  instance  the  killing  of 
grasshoppers  by  hopperdozers,  or  household  insects,  etc. 

Kerosene  emulsion. —  This  is  probably  the  best  form  into 
which  kerosene  can  be  jiut  for  spraying  growing  plants.  A  stock 
emulsion  is  made  as  follows : 

Hard  laundry  soap  shaved  fine,  %  pound. 
Water,  1  gallon. 
Kerosene,  2  gallons. 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water,  remove  from  the  stove,  and 
immediately  add  the  kerosene ;  churn  with  a  bucket  pump  until  a 
soft,  butter-like,  clabbered  mass  is  obtained.  One  part  of  this 
stock  solution  is  added  to  ten  or  twelve  of  water  for  spraying. 
If  the  stock  solution  is  properly  made,  this  can  be  used  on  tender 
foliage  of  plants  for  such  insects  as  plant-lice,  etc.  (Soft  water 
must  be  used.) 

Lime  sulphur. —  "Within  the  last  few  years  this  wash  has 
become  very  prominent.  It  is  one  of  the  best  scale  insecticides 
yet  discovered,  and  will  kill  the  eggs  of  plant  lice.  As  an  insecti- 
cide it  has  an  accumulative  action,  being  more  active  a  few  weeks 
after  spraying  than  at  the  start.  Since  coming  into  prominence 
as  a  scale  insecticide,  it  has  been  found  that  in  its  several  forms 
it  is  also  an  excellent  fungicide,  and  will,  in  many  cases,  replace 
Bordeaux  mixture.  There  are  several  formulae  for  making  this 
Avash,  three  of  which  are  appended. 

The  Boiled  ^Mixture  (nome-made)  : 

Best  stone  lime,  15  pounds  (not  over  5%  impurities) . 
Flowers  of  sulphur,  15  pounds. 
Wafer,  50  gallons. 

Slake  the  lime  in  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water,  add  the  sulphur 
gradually  and  stir  thoroughly.  Dilute  the  mixture  to  fifteen 
gallons  Avith  water,  and  boil  in  an  iron  kettle,  or  cook  by  steam 
in  a  barrel  for  forty-five  minutes.  Fill  the  vessel  with  water  to 
the  required  fifty  gallons ;  strain  the  wash  through  a  fine-mesh 
strainer,  and  apply  hot. 

This  wash  should  be  applied  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  have 
dropped,  or  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  open.  Spray  thor- 
oughly, covering  all  parts  of  the  tree. 

Formula  (Conccnirated)  : 
80  pounds  sulphur. 

40  pounds  best  stone  lime   (95%  calcium  oxide). 
50  gallons  water. 

The  cost  of  making  this  material  will  depend  on  the  amount 
that  can  be  made  at  one  time,  and  the  cost  of  material  and  labor. 


192  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

Tlie  average  cost  is  about  two  dollars  per  barrel  of  fifty  gallons. 
Usually  it  is  not  practicable  to  make  as  much  as  fifty  gallons 
at  one  time,  consequently  the  following  directions  are  for  making 
only  twenty-five  gallons.  Live  steam  run  in  a  barrel,  or  fire 
under  an  iron  kettle,  may  be  used  in  boiling. 

Place  five  gallons  of  water  and  forty  pounds  of  the  sulphur 
in  the  vessel,  and  apply  heat  until  the  sulphur  becomes  a  smooth 
paste,  stirring  constantly.  Now  add  ten  gallons  of  water  and 
twenty  pounds  of  lime,  and  boil  for  forty-five  minutes.  Add 
water  to  make  the  twenty-five  gallons.  "When  cooled  to  sixty- 
five  degrees  F.,  test  with  the  Baume  scale ;  the  reading  should  be 
about  thirt^^-three  degrees. 

As  a  scalecide  to  use  in  the  dormant  season,  this  should  be 
diluted  one  to  ten  (i.  e.,  one  part  of  the  above  formula  diluted 
with  nine  parts  of  water)  and  six  to  ten  pounds  of  stone  lime 
added  to  every  fifty  gallons  of  the  spray. 

As  a  fungicide  for  summer  use,  dilute  one  to  thirty  (one  part 
of  stock  formula  diluted  with  twenty-nine  parts  of  water), 

"WTien  stored  away  it  is  best  to  cover  the  solution  with  a  layer 
of  oil  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick.  This  will  prevent  evapo- 
ration and  the  forming  of  a  crust  on  the  material.  The  material 
should  not  be  stored  where  the  temperature  may  go  very  low. 

In  spraying  mth  this  mixture,  definite  dilution  must  be  made, 
and  to  do  this  a  Baume  scale  is  required.  The  amount  of  dilution 
will  vary  from  one  part  of  this  concentrate  in  nine  or  ten  parts 
of  water  to  one  part  concentrate  in  thirty  or  more  parts  of  water. 
This  concentrated  material  is  now  on  the  market  in  a  commercial 
form,  and  is  generally  very  reliable. 

Self-boiled  Lime  Sulphur: 
Lime,  8  pounds. 
Sulphur,  8  pounds. 
Water,  50  gallons^ 

This  spray  is  especially  valuable  in  cases  where  Bordeaux  is 
injurious  to  foliage  or  fruit.  The  stone  fruits,  such  as  plums, 
are  particularly  susceptible  to  Bordeaux  injury,  while  some 
varieties  of  apples  are  badly  russeted  by  it.  There  is  slight 
danger  of  injury  by  the  self-boiled  lime-sulphur  preparation, 
and  it  is  an  efficient  fungicide  when  properly  made.  It  stains 
the  fruit,  as  does  Bordeaux.  In  making  it,  eight  pounds  of  lime 
of  good  quality  should  be  placed  in  a  barrel,  and  enough  water 
to  nearly  cover  it  should  be  added.  AVhile  the  lime  is  slaking, 
add  sulphur  which  has  been  run  through  a  sieve  to  break  up 
the  lumps.    The  sulphur  should  be  thoroughly  stirred  into  the 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES  193 

slaking  lime,  enough  water  being  added  to  make  a  pasty  mass. 
The  barrel  should  now  be  covered,  in  order  to  retain  the  heat, 
and  the  contents  should  be  occasionally  stirred.  The  time 
required  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  lime;  if  the  lime  acts 
quickly,  five  to  ten  minutes  will  be  sufficient,  while  if  it  acts 
slowly,  fifteen  minutes  may  be  necessary.  It  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stand  too  long,  because  it  may,  in  that  case,  be  inju- 
rious to  foliage.  Now  add  a  little  water,  stirring  the  mixture 
while  it  is  being  poured  in.  Then  add  enough  Avater  to  bring 
the  total  up  to  fifty  gallons.  In  applying  the  spray  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  good  agitator  in  the  sprayer. 

Miscible  oils  {oils  that  will  mix  ivith  water). —  There  are 
several  oils  on  the  market  that  are  miscible  with  water.  These 
make  a  good  wdnter  spray  for  scales,  and  are  also  excellent 
summer  sprays  against  the  same  insects.  Great  care,  however, 
must  be  taken  to  obtain  the  right  dilution,  as  per  directions  given 
on  container,  or  burning  of  the  leaves  will  result. 

Paris  green. —  This  is  the  old  stand-by,  and  is  still  used  by 
many  where  an  arsenical  insecticide  is  necessary.  Our  experi- 
ments on  orchard  trees,  and  other  reports,  indicate  that  arsenate 
of  lead  is  better  in  every  respect ;  although  our  potato  expert  at 
the  Experiment  Station,  Mr.  Kohler,  who  has  experimented  wdth 
many  of  the  stomach  insecticides  for  potato  beetles,  finds  Paris 
green  the  most  satisfactory  for  these  pests.  It  is  generally  used 
at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  fifty  gallons  of  spray.  In  using 
always  first  make  a  paste  of  the  Paris  green  and  water,  and  then 
add  to  the  spray  material.  If  water  alone  is  used,  two  to  three 
pounds  of  stone  lime  should  be  added.  If  Bordeaux  mixture  is 
used,  the  addition  of  lime  is  not  necessary. 

Potassium  sulphide  {Liver  of  sulphur). — 

Formula  : 

3  to  5  ounces  of  potassium  sulphide. 
10  gallons  of  water. 

This  is  used  in  place  of  Bordeaux,  to  avoid  spotting  of  foliage 
and  fruit.  It  is  considered  to  be  especially  effective  against 
powdery  mildews,  such  as  the  gooseberiy  mildew.  It  is  also 
quite  extensively  used  in  greenhouses  and  on  shrubbery. 

Pyrethrum  or  insect  powder  {Persian  Insect  Poicder,  Dalma- 
tian Insect  Powder  or  Buhacli). —  This  is  a  powder  from  the 
ground-up  flowers  of  the  pyrethrum  plant.  It  is  a  contact 
insecticide,  and  is  used  against  fleas,  cockroaches,  etc.  If  the 
powder  is  burned  in  a  room,  the  fumes  will  destroy  mosquitoes 
and  flies.  Purchase  only  when  warranted  fresh,  and  then,  when 
in  sealed  cans. 


194     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 
Soap. —  Ordinary  soap  is  a  valuable  contact  insecticide. 

Formula  : 

1  pound  Ivory  soap  or  other  soap  of  kno\\Ti  quality. 
14  gallons  water. 

Boil  the  soap  in  five  or  six  gallons  of  water  until  dissolved; 
dilute  with  water  to  fourteen  gallons  and  spray  while  still  warm. 
It  is  recommended  for  plant  lice,  red  spiders,  etc. 

Sulphur. —  Flowers  of  sulphur  is  often  dusted  on  plants  to 
prevent  such  diseases  as  the  powdery  mildews. 

Tangle-foot. —  Is  a  sticky  material  often  used  on  trunks  of 
trees,  etc.,  to  prevent  caterpillars  from  crawling  up  to  the  leaves, 
or  to  prevent  wingless  females  of  some  insects  crawling  up  the 
trunk  to  lay  their  eggs. 

The  resin-lime  mixture. —  This  is  a  mixture  often  used,  in 
combination  with  a  fungicide  or  an  insecticide,  to  insure  the 
sticking  of  the  necessary  poisonous  material  to  smooth,  glossy 
leaves. 

Formula  : 

Pulverized  resin,  5  pounds. 
Concentrated  lye,   1   pound. 
Fish  or  other  animal  oil,  1  pint. 
Water,  5  gallons. 

Place  the  oil,  the  resin  and  one  gallon  of  the  water  in  an  iron 
kettle,  and  heat  until  the  resin  softens ;  then  add  the  lye  and  stir 
thoroughl}^  Add  to  this  four  gallons  of  hot  water,  and  boil  until 
a  little  mixed  with  cold  water  gives  a  clear,  amber-colored  liquid. 
Add  water  to  make  up  to  the  five  gallons. 

This  is  our  stock  solution.  In  spraying  with  Paris  green  or 
Bordeaux  mixture,  take  two  gallons  of  this  mixture,  dilute  it  to 
ten  gallons,  and  add  to  forty  gallons  of  spray. 

Tobacco. —  Tobacco  is  a  very  important  contact  insecticide. 
As  a  powder,  it  is  one  of  the  best  remedies  for  root-lice  on  trees. 
It  may  also  be  used  in  the  form  of  dry  stems  applied  in  the  same 
wa}^  as  the  dust.  As  a  decoction  of  the  stems  (the  liquid  obtained 
from  boiling  in  water),  it  may  be  used  as  a  spray  against  plant- 
lice.  This  decoction  is  also  good  for  lice  on  cattle.  Tobacco- 
smoke,  when  generated  in  an  enclosed  space,  kills  numerous  soft- 
bodied  insects.  There  are  several  commercial  forms  of  tobacco 
decoctions  on  the  market,  namely  Nicotine,  Black  Leaf  and 
Nicofume.  The  latter  is  very  highly  recommended  by  green- 
house men  for  the  green  fly  on  lettuce.  We  have  found  it 
excellent  for  all  kinds  of  plant-lice. 

Whale  oil  soap  {Fish  oil  soap). —  This  is  a  conunercial  product 


I 


INSECTICIDES  AXD  FUNGICIDES  195 

and  is  a  good  contact  insecticide,  particularly  for  soft-bodied 
insects  like  plant-lice  and  slugs. 

Dry  lime  sulphur. —  This  is  frequently  used  combined  with 
powdered  arsenate  of  lead  to  control  fungus  diseases  and  to 
destroy  chewing  insects  in  both  orchard  and  garden.  These 
materials  may  be  applied  by  dusting,  an.d  by  combining  them 
with  water. 

The  advantages  of  the  dry  mixtures  on  the  liquid  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Cost  of  operation  is  low. 

2.  Where  the  water  problem  is  difficult  to  solve,  the  dust 
spray  is  highly  recommended. 

3.  Dusting  is  effective  in  destroying  both  insects  and  disease. 

4.  The  material  takes  up  less  room  and  is  shipped  at  low  cost. 

5.  The  materials  are  not  injured  by  frost. 

6.  Both  the  dry  lime  sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead  may  easily 
be  mixed  with  water  if  the  liquid  solution  is  desirable.  The  dry 
material  is  applied  at  the  rate  of  twelve  to  fourteen  pounds  to 
fifty  gallons  of  water  (dormant  spray)  for  a  liquid  solution.  To 
control  the  apple  scab  and  the  codling  moth,  apply  at  the  rate 
of  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  plus  three  pounds 
of  dry  lime  sulphur  to  fifty  gallons  of  water  (summer  spray). 

For  the  home  garden,  the  following  combinations  and  amounts 
are  recommended: 

Dry  Arsenate  of  Lead  : 

Seed  Fruits  and  Truck  Crops: 

3  to  4  level  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Stone  Fruits: 

2  to  3  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 

Arsenate  of  Calcium: 

Seed  Fruits  and  Truck  Crops: 

11/4  to  2  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Potatoes : 

2  to  3  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Stone  Fruits: 

1  to  ll/^  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 

Paris  Creex: 

1  to  2  level  teaspoons  to  one  gallon  water. 

Insecto : 

General  Truck  Crops  and  Seed  Fruits: 

8  to  9  level  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Stone  Fruits: 

5  to  6  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 


196  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Drt  Lime-Sulphuk  : 
Dormant  Spray: 

8  to  10  level  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Summer  Spray — Seed  Fruits: 

1  to  2  tablespoons  Dry  Lime-Sulphur. 
Summer  Spray — Stone  Fruits: 

%  to  1  tablespoon  Dry  Lime-Sulphur, 

Tuber-Tonic  : 

8  to  9  level  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 

FUNGI-BORDO : 

7  to  8  tablespoons  to  one  gallon  water. 
Courtesy  of  SheruHit-WilUams. 

Spraying  machinery. —  An  individual  may  understand  thor- 
oughly all  about  insecticides  and  fungicides  and  their  applica- 
tion ;  and  yet,  unless  he  is  the  right  kind  of  man,  or  has  the  right 
kind  of  machinery  to  put  the  material  on  the  plant  in  proper 
form,  his  knowledge  avails  him  nothing.  A  spray-pump  may  be 
capable  of  applying  the  spray  correctly  and  economically  for  a 
person  in  one  orchard,  and  not  be  the  right  kind  for  another 
orchard.  Again,  one  kind  of  pump  may  suit  one  orchardist,  and 
good,  clean  fruit  be  the  result,  though  perhaps  the  pump  is  not 
as  good  as  that  of  his  neighbor,  who  sees  no  good  in  spraying 
because  his  fruit  is  spotted  or  worm-eaten.  With  the  present- 
day  advance  in  all  kinds  of  machinery,  it  often  pays  a  man  to 
practically  give  away  an  old  machine  for  a  new  one  of  more 
efficient  pattern,  which  may  be  better  suited  for  the  work  in 
hand.  Spraying,  therefore,  is  a  question  of  individuality  and 
spraying  machinery. 

For  orchard  work  it  is  never  advisable  to  purchase  anything 
smaller  than  a  barrel-pump.  A  good  barrel-pump  will  last  a  life- 
time, and  can  be  used  for  purposes  other  than  spraying,  such  as 
white-washing,  disinfecting,  etc.  When  an  orchardist  has  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  trees  to  require  five  or  six  barrels  of  liquid 
for  one  spraying,  it  is  advisable  to  purchase  a  large  tank,  holding 
two  hundred  to  three  hundred  gallons,  and  a  double-acting 
sprayer ;  or  better,  if  he  can  afford  it,  a  gasoline  sprayer. 

Always  wash  the  spraying  apparatus  out  with  water  after 
spraying  or  white-washing,  and  oil  and  clean  up  all  parts  before 
putting  away  for  A\dnter. 

Some  essentials  of  a  good  spraying  apparatus  are : 

1.  The  pump  should  be  brass  lined,  to, prevent  corroding  or 
rusting  of  the  parts. 

2.  The  pump  must  have  a  sufficiently  large  air-chamber  to 


INSECTICIDES  AND  FUNGICIDES  197 

keep  the  pressure  uniform;  one  that  will,  with  comparative  ease, 
keep,  with  two  leads  of  hose  in  operation,  a  jn-essure  of  at  least 
one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

3.  As  the  principal  ingredient  in  many  of  the  insecticides  and 
fungicides  is  the  fine  materials  held  in  suspension,  there  must 
be  perfect  agitators,  that  will  keep  the  liquid  in  constant  motion. 

4.  The  nozzle  must  be  the  best  that  is  suited  to  the  occasion. 
The  nozzles  of  the  "Bordeaux"  type  are  not  very  satisfactory^ 
in  ordinary  usage.  The  ''Vermorel"  gives  an  excellent  tine 
spray,  but  often  it  is  misty  too  soon  after  leaving  the  nozzle. 
The  larger  types  of  nozzles,  like  the  ''Mistry,"  ape  more 
satisfactory  for  much  of  the  orchard  spraying. 

5.  Another  very  important  point  in  spraying  is  to  have  a  good 
hose.  Often  a  poor  or  worn-out  hose  causes  more  trouble  than 
all  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  put  together.  Good  hose  bands,  to 
hold  the  hose  on  the  couplings,  and  long  hose-couplings,  are 
essential.  A  short  hose-coupling  is  often  more  trouble  than  it  is 
worth. 

6.  Bamboo  extension  rods,  with  cut-offs  at  the  lower  ends,  are 
necessary  in  orchard  spraying.  The  rod  inside  the  bamboo  is 
made  either  of  iron,  brass  or  aluminum.  The  latter  are  lighter 
to  handle,  and  when  properly  made  are  excellent.  Extension 
rods  can  be  obtained  from  eight  to  fourteen  feet  long,  but  it  is 
not  often  advisable,  in  this  State,  to  purchase  one  over  ten  feet. 

7.  A  necessity,  when  spraying  compounds  are  used,  is  a  good 
strainer.  A  fine-mesh  brass  screen,  set  at  an  angle  in  the  frame 
of  a  box,  is  the  simplest  and  best. 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


Preparation  of  the  soil. —  The  farmer's  vegetable  garden 
should  be  located  near  the  kitchen  and  no  matter  what  the  soil 
may  be,  clay,  loam,  sand  or  muck,  certain  vegetables  may  be 
raised  successfully. 

The  soil  should  be  well  drained. —  Vegetables  cannot  grow 
where  there  is  standing  water,  or  where  the  soil  is  sour.  Plow 
under  the  sod  or  heavy  application  of  manure  in  the  spring. 
The  soil  should  ''scour"  freely  from  the  plowshare.  Have  the 
soil  very  fine;  free  from  stones  or  material  that  mil  interfere 
with  cultivation. 

Soil  that  is  ridged  in  the  fall  with  a  coating  of  well-decayed 
stable  manure,  dished  in  early  in  the  spring,  and  then  the  spring- 
tooth  and  spike-tooth  harrow  worked  over  the  surface,  makes  an 
ideal  seed  bed.    Plow  deeply. 

Fertilizers. —  Horse  manure  where  the  horses  have  been 
bedded  in  straw,  is  considered  the  best  for  vegetable  culture. 
Never  apply  burned  manure  (gray  colored  straM^). 

Cow  manure  is  cooler  than  horse  manure,  and  especially  fine 
for  cabbage,  cauliflower  and  Brussels  sprouts. 

Pulverized  sheep  or  chicken  manure  is  especially  fine  for  a 
top  dressing  after  the  crop  has  started.    Such  crops  as  onions. 


The  Plant  Foods 
Select  one  fertilizer  from  each  group  and  work  it  well  into  the  soil 


I'LANT    FOOD 
NECESSARY 

FERTILIZER   OR 
SOURCE 

AMOUNT  PER 
SQUARE  ROD 

HINTS 

Nitrogen— Leaf 
builder 

Nitrate  of  soda 

2  lbs. 

Apply    before    a 
rain 

For  solution,  especially  for 
plants  (Lettuce)  1 1/2  lbs. 
to   14  gallons  water 

Potash— Stem 
builder 

Kainit 

Sulphate  of  pot- 
ash 

Wood  ashes — 
Hard  wood  best 

31/2  lbs. 
2  lbs. 

Apply  freely 

Very  difficult  to  secure 
Buy  early 

Phosphoric    acid  — 
Fruit  builder 

Ground   rock  acid 

phosphate 
Dissolved   bone 
Basic  slag 

5  lbs. 

2  lbs. 
5  lbs. 

The  dissolved  bone  meal 
is  considered  the  best. 
Make  your  own  selec- 
tion 

198 


THE  VEGETABLE  GAEDEN 


199 


celery,  and  lettuce  are  benefited.  Apply  sparingly  and  do  not 
leave  any  manure  on  the  foliage. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  seldom  necessary  for  the  farm 
garden,  but  may  sometimes  be  applied  after  the  crop  is  growing. 

Tools  for  operating  the  home  garden. —  Simding  fork;  hoe 
(seven  inches);  rake  (steel  ])ow),  fifteen  teeth;  double  wheel 
cultivator;  single  garden  reel,  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
Italian  hemp;  auto  spray  (galvanized  iron) ;  galvanized  water- 
ing can  (twelve  quarts) ;  hand  w^eeder. 

A  garden  trowel  which  is  sometimes  useful  in  transplanting 
(twenty-five  cents),  and  also  a  hotbed  soil  thermometer  (one 
dollar)  may  be  added  to  the  above  list.  But  few  home  gardens 
have  hotbeds  though  they  are  most  valuable  and  highly  recom- 
mended. 

Hotbed. —  Much  time  may  be  gained  in  the  out-door  culture 


■B0ARP5 


5ASHi?n^^ 


^f^T  WiDe 


15  INCHES  PROM  THE  50ILT0  THE  5A5H 

■•6U1LPING   PAPER 
B0ARP5 


THERMOMETER 


8  INCH&5 


--GROUMO     LEVEL 


4  mCHES    OP  SOIL 


2PT   PttP 


n-^ 


PRESH    HORSt    MANURE 


^■jatar^g  'HCH&5  Of-  MHBs^'^^tM^^^^iMmrmr^  tile  ora.n5  '^r^m^:(i^yM 


Fig.   101. —  DiafTi-am  of  a  hotbed. 


necessary  to  start  certain  vegetables  early  in  order  to  get  a  crop 
by  the  end  of  the  season,  and  it  is  also  necessary  to  sow  the  seed 
of  certain  crops,  transplant  the  seedlings  to  the  cold  frames  and 
finally  to  the  open,  aft^r  the  spring  frosts  have  passed,  in  order 
to  get  more  than  one  crop  from  the  same  soil  in  one  season.  The 
advantages  of  the  hotbed  and  cold  frame  are:  (1)  Time  may 
be  gained  in  spring  by  starting  the  plants  before  the  frosts  have 


200  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

passed;  (2)  certain  plants  which  require  a  long  season  in  order 
to  mature  may  be  started;  (3)  it  is  made  possible  for  certain 
plants  like  the  tomato  to  produce  a  large  crop  before  frost 
(especially  true  in  the  north) ;  (4)  some  crops  like  lettuce  and 
celery  do  better  if  started  in  the  hotbed  and  transplanted  after 
pruning  the  root  system;  (5)  the  elements,  moisture,  heat  and 
light  are  controlled  so  that  the  germination  of  the  seed  is  sure ; 
(6)  the  first  crop  of  weeds  may  be  destroyed  by  cultivation,  the 
soil  made  fine  and  the  arrangement  of  the  garden  made  more 
attractive  by  starting  the  first  crops  under  glass;  (7)  if  the 
plants  are  properly  cared  for  they  are  strong  and  resist  disease 
more  readily;  (8)  a  means  of  avoiding  insect  enemies  is  pro- 
vided; (9)  tender  crops  like  cucumbers  and  summer  squash  may 
be  started  early  among  the  other  seedlings ;  (10)  a  crop  of  lettuce 
and  other  vegetables  may  be  raised  after  frost  sets  in,  late  in 
the  fall. 

Fill  the  hotbed  with  fresh  horse  manure  where  bedding  has 
been  straw.  Pack  tightly.  Moisten  with  hot  water  to  start  fer- 
mentation. Place  four  to  five  inches  of  clean  garden  loam  over 
the  manure.  Place  a  thermometer  as  shown  in  the  diagram. 
Cover  with  sash.  Temperature  often  rises  to  one  hundred  and 
ten  degrees  Fahrenheit  and  higher.  Plant  seeds  after  the  tem- 
perature begins  to  drop  and  reaches  eighty  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
Seeds  planted  when  the  temperature  is  high  are  baked. 

Protect  the  plants  early  in  the  spring  and  late  in  the  fall  by 
covering  hotbed  sash  with  straw  mats  and  light  wooden  shutters. 
Ventilate  freely  on  bright  days,  but  do  not  allow  a  draft,  or  chill 
the  plants. 

Following  is  a  table  of  spring  crops  planted  in  the  hotbed  in 
the  vicinity  of  New  York  city.  For  every  hundred  miles  north 
or  south  of  New  York  subtract  or  add  from  eight  to  ten  days  to 
the  dates  given. 


Early  Crops  for  Hotbed  and  Transplanting 

TRANS- 

DATE   SOWN 

VEGETABLES 

TO  COLD  FRAMES 

PLANTED   TO 
THE  OPEN 

READY  TO  EAT 

February  15 

Lettuce 

March  10 

April    15 

April   30 

Onions 

March  15 

May     10 

May-Fall 

Beets 

March  15 

April  25 

June    30 

Cabbage 

March  15 

April   20 

May     30 

Cauliflower 

March  25 

May       1 

June      1 

Kohl-rabi 

March  15 

April   20 

June      5 

Celery 

April       1 

May       1 

June    15 

I 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN  201 

Crops  to  be  Started  and  Matured  in  the  Hotbed.     Planted  in  the  Spring 


DATE 

vegetables 

DATE  OF 
MATURITY 

REMARKS 

April  1 
February  15 
February  15 

Cucumbers 
Summer  squash 
Beets 
Radish 

June  10 
June  10 
June     1 
March  25 

Plant    rows    of    beets    12 
inches  apart.    Also  rows 
of  Radish  10  inches  apart 
and  here  and  there  about 
12   to    18   inches   apart; 
plant    one    of    the    vine 
seeds  about  2  inches  in 
depth 

Plants  Four  Weeks  Old  Transplanted  from  the  Open  to  the  Hotbed  Before 
Frost  in  the  Fall.    Also  Seed  Sown  in  the  Fall 


date 

vegetables 

date  of 

MATURITY 

remarks 

October  1 

September  15 
September  15 

Lettuce      (loose) 

leaf) 
Radish 
Beets   (plants) 

Xovember  15 

October       20 

November  15- 

December 

Radish  seed  may  be  sowti 
between     the     rows     of 
growing  plants  and  they 
mature  in  about  35  days. 

The  cold  frame  is  a  much 
cheaper  construction,  re- 
quires no  excavation,  no 
heating  material  or  even 
glass  covering.  It  may  be 
constructed  by  nailing  four 
twelve-inch  boards  together, 
usually  six  feet  long  and 
four  feet  wide.  Place  this 
frame  on  the  surface  of  the 
soil  and  dig  up  the  soil  with- 
in it.  A  little  finely  pulver- 
ized and  well-decayed  man- 
ure is  not  objectionable  if 
properly  incorporated  into 
the  first  two  inches  of  soil. 
A  little  soil  piled  around  the 
outside  of  the  frame  will 
make  it  firm  and  keep  out 

Fig.  102.— a  drag  marker  used  in  marking    the   COld   air.      The   covering 

''^rJH^n'^T*''^?^''"*',^'"^*'"''^^'^''  varies  from  glass  to  canvas 

— U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  i  ■,        ■, 

and  burlap. 


202  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


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THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


203 


Fig.  107.— Transplanting  lettuce.  Mak- 
ing the  hole  with  the  first  two  fin- 
gers. 


Fig.  ids.— Note  the  position  of  the  fin- 
gers in  pressing  the  soil  about  the 
roots  of  the  plant.  It  is  important 
to  have  the  soil  firm. 


Fig.  109. —  Flat  of  Jersey  Wakefield  cabbage  plants  one  week  after 
shifting. 


Fig.  110.— a  flat  full  of  thrifty  let- 
tuce plants,  two  by  two  inches 
apart  eacli  way. 


Fig.  111.— a,  Thrifty  lettuce  plant 
before  pruning  the  leaves.  B, 
Leaves  jiruned,  the  plant  is  ready 
to  be  transplanted  to  the  open. 


204  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


■ 

1^^ 

1 

^^HtL^lj 

Jj^h^^^^^^^H 

1 

|H|^ 

^^^^y^^^^-^-r^^m 

tf<   Ivir 

A  B 

Fig.  112, — ^Both  of  these  heads  of  let- 
tuce were  planted  at  the  same 
times.  A,  Boston  Head  lettuce 
going  to  seed.  B,  Head  of  Han- 
son Improved  will  thrive  in  hot 
weather. 


Fig.  113. — Cucumbers  started  early 
in  a  strawberry  basket. 


The  purpose  of  the  cold  frame 
is  to  have  a  place  in  April  or 
May  to  which  to  transplant  seed- 
lings from  the  hotbed  so  that 
they  may  develop  a  more  healthy  and  stocky  set  of  plants.  It  is 
also  a  change  from  the  heat  to  the  temperature  out  of  doors.  The 
cold  frame  may  be  covered  mth  any  material  that  will  keep  out 
the  light  frosts.  After  the  frost  has  passed  and  the  garden  soil 
is  properly  prepared,  these  plants  may  be  transferred  to  the 
open. 

Hardening  the  plants  is  a  practice  necessary  if  the  best 
results  are  looked  for.  In  the  hotbed  and  cold  frames  the  plants 
are  supplied  with  moisture  when  necessary  and  protected  from 
winds  and  cold.  In  order  that  these  young  plants  may  not  feel 
a  shock  when  placed  in  the  open,  you  should  increase  the  ven- 
tilation until  the  sash  or  other  protective  covering  is  entirely 
removed  and  the  plants  exposed,  and  decrease  the  watering  so 
that  the  plant  becomes  accustomed  to  nature's  periods  of 
supplying  moisture. 

Before  transplanting  to  the  field,  soak  the  soil  with  water  so 
that  the  soil  may  adhere  to  the  roots  of  the  young  plants,  and 
Avater  the  plants  again  as  soon  as  they  are  set  in  the  soil. 

The  cold  frame  may  be  taken  apart  after  its  usefulness  has 
passed  and  the  space  used  for  various  garden  crops. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Garden  110  by  200  Feet 


205 


VEGETABLE 


Artichokes,  bur 

Artichokes,   Jerusalem 


Asparagus  . . 
Beans,  green. 
Beans,  wax . . 
pole.. 


Beets,  early. 
Beets,   late.. 


Brussels    sprouts 
Cabbage,  early... 

Cabbage,    late 

Cabbage,   red 

Cabbage,   Savoy.. 
Carrots,  Vs  long.. 

Carrots,  long 

Cauliflower  


Celeriac  

Celery,  early. 

Celery,  late  . . 

Chard,  Swiss. 
Corn,  early... 


Corn,  mid-season. 
Corn,  late 


Cucumbers    . 
Eggplant    . . . 

Endive  

Horse-radish 

Kohl-rabi   

Leek    


Lettuce 


Muskmelons 

Okra   

Onions  


Parsnips  

Peas,  early 

Peas,  mid-seasou. 

Peas,  late 

Peppers  

Potatoes,  early.. . 

Potatoes,  late 

Pumpkins 


Radishes,  early. 


Radishes,   winter 

Rhubarb  

Salsify  

Spinach    


l^  to  32 
1/4  to  32 

33 
1/2  of  7 
1/2  of  7 

31 


4,5 

13 
19 

%of27 
%  of  27 
%  of  27 
Vi  of  10 

%oflO 
%of   8 


1/2  of   9 


1  Pkg. 
1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 


Herb  bed      1  pkg. 
27  1  pt. 


18  roots 
48  roots 
or  1  (jt. 
200  two- 
yr.  roots 
Iqt. 

Iqt. 

Iqt. 

V*  lb. 
Va  lb. 

1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 
loz. 


1  pkg. 


Squash,  early. 


30 

%0f22 
%of  16 
1/2  of  9 
Vi  of  32 
14  of   8 
Between  to- 
matoes 
In      melons 
and     else- 
where 
Bed 
14  of  16 
13. 14, 15  and 
between 
11 
1 
2,  3,  4,  5 

6 
14  of  16 

21,23 
24,  25,  26 
In  sweet 
corn 
In      melons 
and  vacant 
places 
Herb  bed 
1/4  of  32 
12 
Early  6,   18, 
late     any- 
where 
Vs  of  22 


Iqt. 

Ipt. 

Ipkg. 
1  pkg. 
1  pkg. 
50  root.' 

1  pkg. 

2  pkgs. 

6  pkgs. 


3  pkgs. 
1  pkg. 
3oz. 


2oz. 

.25 

2qts. 

1.30 

Ipk. 

4.00 

2qts. 

1.00 

Ipkg. 

.05 

4pks. 

2.00 

11/2  bu. 

3.00 

2oz. 

.20 

3oz.  in 

.30 

pkgs. 

2  pkgs 

.10 

16  roots 

2.50 

y^ib. 

.50 

i^lb. 

.2b 

2  pkgs. 


$2.25 
.25 


May  1- 
15 

Jlay  1- 

15 
Apr.  15 
July  15 

-30 
Mar.  15 
Mar.  15 
May  15 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  15 

-30 
Apr.  30 
Apr.  15 

and 

later 
May    1 

Mar.  15 

May   1 

Apr.  15 
May  15 

or 
earlier 
June  1 


May  15 
Apr.  15 
July    1 


Apr.  15 
Apr.    1 

April- 
Sept. 

May  15 
Mar.  15 
Apr.  1 
or  later 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  1 
Apr.  15 
May  30 
Apr.  1 
May  1 
May  15 
May  15 

April- 
Aug. 


Depth 
(inches) 


Drills  

Hill,    6   to 

seeds  

Drills  

Drills  


Hotbed  .... 
Hotbed  .... 
Cold-frames 

Hotbed    

Hotbed    

Drills  


Drills  ., 
Hotbed 


Apr.  15 
Apr.    1 


May  1- 
15 


Hotbed 

Hotbed 

Hotbed 

Drills  .. 
Hills    .. 


Hills  18 
apart    . 

Hills  24 
apart   . 

Drills  ... 

Hotbed    . 

Drills  ... 


Hotbed 
Hotbed 


Hotbed   and 
field    


Hills,    plow. 

Hotbed    

Hotbed   and 
outside 

Drills  

Drills  

Drills  

Drills  

Hotbed    

Drills  

Drills   

Corn   hills... 


Drills      and 
hotbed 


Drills 
Drills 


Hills.  6  to  8 


1 

Vz  to  34 
1/2  to  % 

¥2 
1/2 
V2 
V2 
1/2 
¥4.  to  1/2 

M  to  1/0 

V2 


1/4 

or  less 

1/4 
or  less 

y* 

or  less 

y2  to  % 

1 


1 

y2  to  % 
y2 
V2 


V4.  to  y2 
y2  to  % 

V2  to  % 

V2 

14  to  V2 
V-k  to  2 
IVa  to  2 
iy2  to  2 

1/2 

4 

4 
8/i  tol 


Dist. 
apart  of 

seed 
(inches) 


y, 
10 
10 

2  or  3  in 
very  3d 
ornhill 

y4  to  V2 


Vz 

V4.  to  y2 


206      THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Garden  110  by  200  Feet — Continued 


NUJIl'.EU   OF 
KOW 

AMOUNT 
OF  .SEED 

COST 
OF  SEED 

PLANTING 

VEGETABLE 

Time 

Method 

Depth 
(inches) 

Dist. 
apart  of 

seed 
(inches) 

Squash,  late  

2,1/3  Of  22 

17 
9 
20 

Herb  bed 

y*  lb. 

3  pkgs. 
2  oz. 
2oz. 

1  Pkg. 
each 

.40 

.25 
.20 
.20 

.0.51 
.05 
.05 
.10 
.05 
.05 
.25 
.05 
.05 
.05 

May  15 
-July  1 
Apr.    1 
Apr.  15 
July  15 
-20 

May  1- 
15 

IlilLs     

Hotbed    

Drills   

Drills   

Hotbed    

y*  to  yo 
V4.  to  y. 

Tomatoes    

1/4  to  1/^ 

Turnips,  late 

Balm  

y*  to  V2 

Caraway 

Dill    

Horehound   

Mint 

y*  to  % 

gage    .            

Savory,   sununer 

Thyme  

$28.70 

Garden  110  by  200  Feet — Continued 


VEGETABLES 


Artichokes,  bur.. 


Artichokes,  Jeru 
salem   


Asparagus 


Beans,  green 

Beans,  wax 

Beans,  pole 

Beets,  early 

Beets,  late 

Brussels  sprouts 
Cabbage,  early... 
Cabbage,  late 


Cabbage,  red.... 
Cabbage,  Savoy. 
Carrots,  %  long. 
Carrots,  long — 
Cauliflower  


Celeriac  

Celery,  early. 
Celery,  late... 
Chard,  Swiss. 


TRANSPLANTING 


Dis- 
tance 


plants 
(inches) 


Apr.  15 
Apr.  15 
Apr.  15 


Apr.  15-30 
Apr.  15-30 
June  15-30 

May  20-30 

INIay  20-30 


THINNING 


Space 
between 

plants 
(inches) 


Tune   15 
June    15 


June   15 
July  1-15 


June    1 

15 
June   1 

15 


June  10-20  10  to  12 
Alav  1-10  4  I 
June  10-20     5  to  6 


Ijune    15 


3  to  4 
3  to  4 


IMethod 
of  dis- 
posal 


Destroy 
Destroy 


Greens 
Greens 


Destroy 
Destroy 


HARVESTING 


Sept. 


Sept. ; 


li  years 

after 

planting 

July  1-15 
July  1-15 
Aug.  1-15 
June  15-30 
Sept.  15-30 
Aug.  1-15 
July  1-15 
Aug.  15-30 


July  30 

July  30 

July    1-15 

July  15-30 

Aug.    1-15 

Sept.  15 
June    1-15 

Sept.  15 
June  15-30 


Oct.  30- 
Nov.  30 

Nov.    and 

next 

spring 

INIay  to 

June  1 

after 

3  years 

Sept.   1-15 

Sept.  1-15 

Sept.  30  on 

Aug.   1 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  15  on 

Sept.  1 
Nov.   1  on 

Oct.  30  on 

Oct.  30  on 

Aug.  15 
Oct.     1-15 

Oct.  15 

Nov.  1  on 
July  15 

Nov.  1  on 
July  15 


Onto 
July  4 


All 
winter 

All 
winter 

All 
winter 


To  store 

for  winter 

Winter 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


207 


Garden   110  by  200  Feet — Continued 


VEGETABLE! 


Corn,  early 

Corn,  mid-sejison 


Cucumbers    ... 

EKKplaut  

Endive  

Horse-radish    . 


Kohlrabi 

Leek  

Lettuce  .. 


Muskinelons 

Okra   

Onions   

Farsnips  


Peas,  early 

Peas,  mid-season. 

Peas,  late 

Peppers  

Potatoes,   early.. 
Potatoes,  late — 


Pumpkins 

Eadishes,  early. 


Radishes,  winter 

Rhubarb   

Salsify  


Spinach 


Squash,  early 
S(iua.sh,  late . 


Tomatoes 


Turnips,   early 


Turnips,  late — 

Balm  

Basil,  sweet 

Caraway  

Catnip   

Dill    

Horehound    

Mint    

Sage 

Savory,   suniniei 
Thvme  


TRANSPLANTING 


May  20-30 


tpr.  15 


June  15-30 
May  1-10 
.\pr.-Aug. 


:Mav  15-30 
Apr.     1 


May  20-30 


Apr.  15 


May  20-30 


Dis- 
tance 
apart 

of 
plants 
(inches) 


July  1-4, 
plants 
July    15 


July    30 
July  1-15 


June   15 


3 

7x  7  in. 
hotbed 

10 
outside 


12 


June  15 


June   1 
15 


Space 
between 

plants 
(inches) 


June  15 


June   15 


June   1- 

15 
yisiy     3( 

on 

June   15 

June   15 
on 


May    15 
Aug. 


Hills   18 

To  4 
plants 
in  hill 

To  3 
plants 
in  hill 


2  in  hill 


2  to  6 
3   . 


3  or  4 
in  hill 

3  ft. 
2  or  3 
in  hill 

6  ft. 


(5 
10  to  11' 


Method 
of  dis- 
posal 


Destroy 
Destroy 

Destroy 

Destroy 


Greens 


Destroy 
Destroy 


Destroy 


Destroy 
Destroy 


Destroy 


Destroy 
Destroy 


HAKVESTINt 


Tuly  20-30 
Aug.    1-15 

Sept.  1-15 


Aug.  15-30 
Sept.    1 
Sept.  15 

Nov.  1  on 


July  30 

June   1 

May  20-30 


.A.ug.  15-30 

July  15-30 

June    1-15 

Sept.  1 


June  15-20 

July    1-15 

July  30 

Aug.  15 

June  15 

Aug.  15-30 

Oct.    1 

May   1 

Sept.  1 
Mav  15 
Sept.  1 

May  15-30 


Sept.    1 

June  15-30 

Juno   1-15 

Sept.  15 


Aug.    5 
Sept.    1 

Sept.  30 


Sept.  15-30 
Sept.  15 
Oct.    30 

Fall  and 
next 
spring 

Aug.  15-30 
July  15 
All  sea- 


Oct.     1 
Sept.   3 

Aug.  15-30 

Oct.  3C 

July 

July 
Aug.  15-30 
Oct.     1-15 

Aug.   1 

Oct.  15 

Oct.  15 

All  sea- 
sons 
Oct.  15 
July  15 
Oct.  30  on 

June  30 


July  15 


Oct.  15 


Sept.  15-30 

Aug.  1- 
Sopt.  1," 
Oct.      Vj 


Again   in 
spring 


For 
winter 

For 
winter 


Winter 
Winter 


208     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

VARIETIES 

Perennials 

Asparagus. —  Strong,  well-developed,  two-year-old  roots  of 
Argenteuil,  Palmetto,  or  Conover's  Colossal. 
Horse-radish. —  Sets  of  Bohemian. 
Bhuharh. —  Linnseus  or  Victoria. 


Fig.  114. — The  wrong  way  to  push  a  seeder  or  hand-cultiva- 
tor. It  is  almost  impossible  to  control  the  direction  of 
the  machine  and  the  operator  tires  quickly. 

ArticJiohes. —  Green  Globe,  which  is  cultivated  for  its  flower 
heads  to  be  cooked  as  asparagus,  is  the  variety  most  commonly 
desired.  If  the  edible  part  wanted  is  the  root,  Jerusalem  is  the 
variety  to  use.  Plant  the  latter  variety  one  foot  apart  in  the 
row,  and  the  former  three  feet  apart. 

Place  perennials  at  one  end  of  the  garden,  so  that  they  will 
not  interfere  with  the  general  culture  of  the  annuals. 

Annuals 

neaiis  (all  dwarfs,  Green  Snap). —  Six  Weeks  and  Giant 
Stringless  Green-pod  Valentine  are  very  early. 

Beans  (all  dwarfs  shell). —  Dwarf  Horticultural,  The  God- 
dard,  and  Bush  Lima. 

Beans  (all  dwarfs,  yellow,  or  wax). —  Wardwell's  Kidney 
Wax,  Golden  Wax,  Stringless  Refugee  Wax,  and  others  are 
good. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


209 


Beets  (early). — Crosby  Egyptian,  Early  Eclipse.  The  former 
is  very  desirable. 

Beets  (late). —  Edmond's  Blood  for  a  standard,  Detroit  Dark 
Red  of  a  deep,  blood-red  color. 

Brussels  sprouts. —  Long  Island  and  Danish  are  very  good. 

Cabbage  (early). —  Early  Jersey  AVakefield,  Early  Erfurt. 

Cabbage  (late). —  All  Seasons,  Danish  Ball  Head,  Volga, 
Drumhead.  Extra  Choice  Drmnhead  Savoy  is  a  very  fancy 
cabbage. 

Cabbage  (red). —  Red  Dutch,  Red  Rock,  Red  Erfurt. 

Carrots  (one-half  long). —  Dan- 
vers  One  Half  Long,  Chantenay  One 
Half  Long,  Ox-heart. 

Carrots  (long). —  Danvers,  Long 
Orange. 

CauUfoiver. —  Snow-ball,     Erfurt. 

Celeriac. — Apple  Shape. 

Celery  ( early ) . —  Golden  Self- 
blanching. 

Celery  (late). —  Self -bleaching, 
Winter  Queen,  Kalamazoo,  Boston 
Market,  Giant  Pascal. 

Chard  (Swiss). —  Order  by  name 
only,  or  variety  Giant  Lucullus. 

Corn  (early). —  Metropolitan,  Ad- 
ams, Cory,  Aristocrat. 

Corn  (mid-season). — Quincy,  Mar- 
ket, Golden  Bantam,  Black  Mexican, 
Country  Gentleman. 

Corn  ( late ) . —  Stowell  's  E  v  e  r  - 
green,  some  of  the  mid-season  varie- 
ties planted  later. 

Cucumbers. —  Arlington  White  Spine,  Davis,  Cool  and  Crisp, 
Fordhook. 

Eggplant  (early). —  Black  Beauty,  New  York  or  Long  Island 
Improved,  Black  Pekin. 

Endive. —  White  Curled,  Batavian, 

Kolil-rabi. —  Early  White  or  Purple  Vienna. 

Leelv. —  Giant  Carentan,  American  Flag. 

Lettuce  (forcing). —  For  forcing  in  hotbed,  Hittinger's 
Forcing. 

Lettuce  (head).— ^Belmont  Mammoth,  Salamander,  Big  Bos- 
ton, All  Heart. 


Fig.  115. — The  right  way  to  push 
a  seedei'  or  hand-cultivator. 
Stand  up  to  the  machine  and 
push  it  with  your  body,  snot 
your  arms.  More  force  and 
less  fatigue. 


210  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

Lettuce  (loose  leaf). —  Grand  Rapids,  Early  Curled  Simpson 
and  Silesian. 

Lettuce  (summer). —  Hanson  Improved  and  Iceberg. 

Lettuce  (cos). —  Kingsholm  Cos,  Paris  AVhite  Cos. 

Mushmelons.—  Rocky  Ford,  Jenny  Lind,  Gem,  Miller  Cream, 
Hackensack. 

Onions  (yellow). —  Danvers,  Soutliport,  Prize-taker,  Austra- 
lian Brown. 

Onions  (red). —  Wetliersfield,  Danvers,  Soutliport. 

Onions  (white). —  Soutliport. 

Onions  (top). —  Plant  in  the  fall,  harvest  in  the  spring. 
Multiplier  and  Egyptian. 

Parsnips. —  Hollow  Crown. 

Peas  (early  dwarf). — Surprise,  Gradus,  Alaska,  Gem,  Eureka, 
Nott's  Excelsior. 

Peas  (mid-season,  dwarf). —  Thomas  Laxton,  American  Won- 
der, Early  Morn,  Admiral  Dewey,  Abundance. 

Peas  (late,  dwarf,  telephone). —  Champion  of  England  is  a  tall 
grower  on  mellow  soil.  Substitute  the  Dwarf  Champion  for 
better  results  in  the  very  small  gardens,  yet  there  is  no  better 
yielder  on  the  market  than  Champion  of  England.  Dwarf  White 
Sugar. 

Peppers. —  Chinese  Giant,  Ruby  King,  Red  Cayenne. 

Potatoes  (early). —  Bliss  Triumph,  Early  Rose,  Early  North- 
ern, Early  Ohio. 

Potatoes  (late). —  Carman  Three,  Rural  New  Yorker,  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  Irish  Cobbler,  Green  Mountain,  State  of  Maine. 

Pumpkins. —  Sugar,  Quaker  Pie,  Cashaw. 

Radish  (early). —  Cardinal  Globe,  Crimson  Giant,  French 
Breakfast. 

Radish  (summer). —  Beckert's  Chartier,  Icicle. 

Radish  (winter). — Long  Black  Spanish,  Celestial,  Long  "White 
Spanish,  Scarlet  China. 

Salsify. —  Sandwich  Island,  Long  White. 

Spinach. —  Giant  Thick  Leaf,  Long  Season,  New  Zealand. 

Squash  (early). —  White  Bush,  Crook  Neck. 

Squash  (late). —  Hubbard,  English  Marrow,  Boston  Marrow, 
Delicious. 

Tomatoes. — ^Earliana,  Bonnie  Best,  Chalk's  Jewel,  Model, 
Ponderoso,  Stone,  Champion. 

Turnips  (early). —  White  Milan,  Purple  Top  Milan,  Snowball. 

Turnips   (late). —  American  Rutabaga,  White  Rock,  White 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


211 


Storing. —  There  are  three  essential  iDriiiciples  which  must  be 
considered  if  we  are  to  keep  both  vegetables  and  fruits  fresh 
during  the  winter  months :  The  regulation  of  temperature,  of 
moisture,  and  of  ventilation. 

Vegetables. —  If  vegetables  are  stored  in  a  storage  building, 
root  cellar  or  outdoor  pit,  the  temj^erature  should  be  about 
thirty-two  to  thirty-four  degrees  F.  Some  vegetables,  like  cab- 
bage, can  stand  25  degrees  F.  above  zero  and  even  lower,  but  for 
general  purposes  the  temperature  should  be  a  little  above  freez- 
ing.   If  the  air  is  too  dry,  the  vegetables  shrink  and  become  use- 


A  B  c 

Fig.  116.— a,  The  top  of  the  beet  cut 

too  close.     B,  Too  small  to  store 

for  winter.     O,  Beets  the  right 

size,  tops  cut  properly  for  storing. 


A  B 

Fig.  117.— a,  Celeiy  plant  as  taken 
out  of  the  ground  ready  for  pack- 
ing. B,  Box  in  which  celery  may 
be  kept  in  the  cellar  during  winter. 


less,  but  if  kept  moist  tliey  retain  their  plumjoness.  "When  root 
crops,  such  as  turnips,  or  carrots,  get  wet  and  the  temperature 
goes  up,  decay  is  sure  to  set  in  and  it  spreads  quickly. 

The  air  must  be  kept  fresh,  cool  and  clean.  Ventilation  is  not 
always  an  easy  practice,  but  it  should  never  be  neglected.  There 
is  considerable  heat  in  vegetables  and  steam  may  be  seen  escap- 
ing from  a  storehouse  mndoAV  on  opening  it  on  a  cold,  clear 
morning.  This  is  usually  a  good  indication  of  the  proper  circu- 
lation of  air. 

Roots  should  be  fully  grown,  all  badly  bruised  roots  should 
be  thrown  out.  The  tops  should  be  cut  off  about  an  inch  above 
the  root.  Do  not  expose  the  roots  to  the  air  too  long  before 
storing  them.  Never  wash  the  soil  from  the  root  cro^os,  or  cut 
the  roots  off  cabbage  and  celery. 

Outdoor  storage  pits. —  There  is  no  better  Avay  to  store  vege- 
tables than  in  the  soil,  out  of  doors,  and  this  method  of  storing 
may  be  practiced  successfully  where  the  winter  temperature  does 
not  go  too  low.     Where  the  temperature  frequently  drops  to 


212  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FAEMERS 


twenty  degrees  below  zero  the  pitting  of  vegetables  should  n©t 
be  attempted.  Such  crops  as  turnips,  parsnips,  beets,  carrots, 
cabbage  and  potatoes  may  be  kept  until  late  spring  if  stored  on 
a  well-drained  strip  of  soil.  Where  the  soil  is  more  or  less  level, 
dig  two  trenches  eight  inches  deep  on  each  side  of  the  mound 
base,  which  should  be  about  six  feet  wide  and  the  required 
length,  so  that  the  vegetables  may  be  piled  four  feet  deep.  Place 
on  the  surface  of  the  ridge  about  six  inches  of  clean  straw. 

If  the  pit  is  only  live  feet  long,  place  a  ventilator  in  the  center. 
Pile  the  vegetables  around  the  ventilator  to  a  height  of  four  feet 
and  cover  the  mound-shaped  pile  with  six  to  eight  inches  of 
straw.    As  the  weather  grows  colder,  cover  the  mound  with  suf- 
ficient   soil    to 

Roof  to  VerttiU.*or: 


keep  out  the 
frost.  It  is  not 
a  bad  idea  to 
throw  a  strip 
of  canvas  over 
the  mound 
early  in  the  fall 
to  keep  out  the 
rain  until  suffi- 
c  i  e  n  t  soil  i  s 
added  to  shed 
the  water . 
Open  the  pit 
at  one  end  and 

stuff  the  hole  Avitli  sufficient  straw  to  keep  the  frost  out  after 
desired  vegetables  have  been  removed.  Cabbage  may  be  buried 
three  tiers  high  by  standing  the  cabbage  head  down  on  the 
straw.  Cabbage  should  be  the  last  crop  to  store,  for  it  quickl}^ 
decays  in  warm  weather.  Eemove  only  the  partly  decayed 
leaves  and  do  not  disturb  the  roots. 

The  vegetable  cellar. —  The  great  difficulty  with  most  of  the 
cellars  is  that  there  has  been  no  forethought  regarding  a  vege- 
table store  room  and  the  furnace  and  pipes  are  so  placed  that  it 
is  a  problem  to  construct  the  proper  type  of  storage  room. 
Select  a  part  of  the  cellar  under  a  window  and  construct  your 
storeroom  with  beaver  board  on  the  outside  (a  non-conductor  of 
heat  and  cold) .  While  the  shape  or  contrivance  may  not  be  ideal, 
yet  it  may  answer  the  purpose.  Bins  may  be  constructed  to 
divide  the  potatoes  from  the  roots.  The  floor,  if  concrete,  should 
be  covered  mth  boards  raised  from  three  to  six  inches  from  the 


Fig.  118. — Diagram  of  a  vegetable  pit.  It  should  run  east 
and  west  and  the  mouth  of  the  ventilator  should  slant 
north.  Have  eight  inches  of  straw  at  the  base  of  the 
pit.  As  the  weather  grows  colder  add  more  earth,  as 
indicated,  to  keep  out  the  frost. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


213 


concrete.    Vegetables  placed  on  the  concrete  have  a  tendency  to 
keep  the  floor  moist,  which  in  time  will  cause  decay  of  the  vege- 


I'lG.  110. —  Cross  section  of  a  concrete  storage  cellar,  showing  the  arrangement 
of  ventilators,  slat  floors,  and  bins,  with  provisiou  for  the  circulation  of  air 
under  and  around  the  slat  floors  and  bins.  This  cellar  is  ten  feet  wide  and 
eight  feet  high,  inside  measurement. — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

tables.  Pure  air  should  circulate  freely  under  the  vegetables  as 
well  as  above.  The  dirt  floor  is  exceptional  but  is  most  satisfac- 
tory. If  the  soil 
is  dry  there  is  no 
danger  in  placing 
the  vegetables  on 
it.  Onions  may 
be  stored  with 
other  vegetables 
if  placed  in 
crates.  Shelves 
may  be  construct- 
ed on  the  walls 
for  winter  squash, 
pumpkins  and 
fruit.  Roots  and 
potatoes  keep  bet- 
ter if  covered 
with   burlap   and 

•f     j.-^        -»•  n  n  m     ic  •   ^"^" — I'^^oor  plan  of  a  storage  room  in  a  corner 

li     Liie     1  u  u  lU    lb  of  a  basement.     The  arrangement  of  the  shelving 

kept    dark    and  ^nd    bins    may    be    changed    to    suit    conditions. 

r^r^r^^     Qn^li  o  tt^^,^  While  the  Construction  of  the  wall  may  be  varied, 

cool.    feUCll  a  Vege-  it  must  be  tight.— ?7.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


214  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


P60384HP 

Fig.  121. — Details  of  construction  for  the  ventilation  of  a  storage  room  in  a 
basement.  The  air  duct  may  he  made  of  wood,  terra  cotta,  or  metal  and 
installed  in  jdace  of  a  pane  of  glass,  thus  avoiding  cutting  through  the 
cellar  wall.  A  hinged  door  the  size  of  another  pane  of  glass  may  serve 
as  an  outlet  for  the  warm  air. — U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

table  cellar  must  be  ventilated 
carefully,  for  one  night's  neglect 
in  closing  the  window  may  mean 
an  entire  loss  of  the  winter  sup- 
ply. A  pail  of  water  placed  in 
the  center  of  the  room  mil  sup- 
ply sufficient  moisture.  Keep  a 
standard  thermometer  hanging 
from  the  ceiling  in  the  center  of 
the  room.  Keep  water  in  the 
furnace  and  a  pail  of  water  near 
to  absorb  the  gas.  Never  allow 
the  furnace  gases  to  get  into  the 
root  cellar.  If  you  only  have 
room  for  a  few  large  boxes  in 
the  root  cellar,  cover  the  outside 
of  each  mth  beaver  board,  place 
a  ventilator  in  the  center  of  each, 
fill  in  the  roots  and  cover  them 
with  five  inches  of  soil.  Place  the  box  as  far  from  the  furnace 
as  possible.  Alsq  place  two  strips  of  board  for  the  box  to  rest 
on,  so  that  the  air  may  circulate  under  it. 


Fig.  122. —  Squash  borer  at  work  in 
the  stem  of  a  squash  vine. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


215 


VEGETABLES 

HARVESTING 

STORAGE 

TEMPERA- 
TURE 

Beans 

Fully   ripe 

Bags     hung     in 
dry  place 

Pods  may  be 
dried  in  field  or 
attic  floor 

Beets 

Before  frost 

Pits,  cellar,  ven- 
tilated barrels 
or  crates 

34°  V. 

Cover  roots  with 
soil 

Cabbage 

After  light  frost 

Outdoor   pits   or 
cellars,      with 
roots  cut,  place 
on  shelves 

Just    above 
freezing 

Do  not  store 
where  odor  may 
penetrate 

Carrots 

Before  frost 

Outdoor    pits   or 
root  cellar 

3i°-35°  V. 

Cover  with  soil 

Celery 

Before  severe 
freezing 

Hotbed  pits,  tren- 
ches,  boxes   or 
cold  frames 

Just  above 
freezing  . 

Leave  soil  on 
roots.  Pack 
stalks  upright. 
Ventilate.  Keep 
soil  moist 

Onions 

Well       matured, 
dry,  before  se- 
vere frost 

Ventilated     bar- 
rels or  baskets, 
crates,  loosely - 
woven  bags 

Above 
freezing 

Slight  frost  does 
not  injure  on- 
ions 

Parsnips 

Before      soil      is 
frozen  hard 

Outdoor   pits   or 
cellars 

Just  above 
freezing 

May  be  left  in 
ground  over 
winter 

Pumpkins 
Squash 

Before  frost 

In        rows        on 
shelves 

40°  F. 

\Vell  ventilated 

Turnips 

Before         severe 
frosts 

Outdoor   pits   or 
cellars 

Above 
freezing 

Strong  odor.  Heat 
and  eat  quick- 
ly. Keep  venti- 
lated 

CHRYSALIS 


A\OTH 


ARMY  mORH 


Fig.  123. —  1,  Army  worm,  pupa  of  same;  2,  moth  into  which 
it  changes;  3,  chrysalis.     This  is  a  cutworm. 


216  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  124. —  Plant  lice,  half -winged  in- 
sects. Cross  lines  and  small  figure 
show  natural  size. 


Fig.  125. —  The  cabbage  butterfly.     The  caterpillar  above  on 
the  left  J  the  chrysalis  below  on  the  left. 


Fig,  126. —  The  insect  in  the  white  cocoon  is  the  natural  cneiuy  of  the 
tomato  worm.     Do  not  destroy  it. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


217 


Insects 


VEGETABLES 

INSECTS 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Asparagus 

Beetle 

Spray,    arsenate    of 
leail 

The  tender  shoots  are  eaten  in 
the  spring  and  summer 

Bean 

Bean  beetle 

Spray,    arsenate    of 
lead 

Lcaxt's  eaten  in  summer 

Bean 

Bean  weevil 

Carbon   bisulphide 

Handle  with  care.  Fumigate 
24  hours  in  tight  room,  bin, 
or  vessel.    Attacks  dry  beans 

Cabbage 

Cabbage  licf; 

Spray, whale  oil  soap 

Spray  before  the  pest  becomes 
numerous  on  under  side  of 
leaves  early  in  summer 

Cabbage 

Cabbage  worm 

Plants  young,  spray 
arsenate    of    lead. 
Plants        heading, 
dust    with     helle- 
1)0  re 

Cabbage  heads  from  inside  out, 
therefore  there  is  little  dan- 
ger from  the  poison  if  prop- 
erly washed  off  before  using 

Cabbage 

Cut  worm 

Bran     mash     mixed 
with   Paris   green 

and     molasses     to 
sweeten 

Scatter  about  field.  Protect 
young  plants  with  paper 
shield  about  them 

Cucumber 

Striped  beetle 

Dust      toliage      and 
stem     with    Land 
plaster  and  Paris 
creen 

Spray  as  soon  as  insects  ap- 
pear in  the  spring  or  sum- 
nu^r 

Corn 

Ear  worm 

Hand  pick 

Gather  before  the  grub  de- 
stroys the  tip.  Enters  at 
tassel  end  of  ear. 

Squash 

Squash  borer 

Slit   stem  near  .sur- 
face   soil,    remove 
borer 

The  first  symptom  is  the  wilt- 
ing of  the  vine.  The  wound 
soon  heals 

Squash 

Black 

squash  bug 

Dust     underside     of 
foliage  with  Land 
plaster  and  Paris 
green 

Hand-picking  is  also  advisable 

Tomato 

Flea  beetle 

Spray  with  poisoned 
Bordeau.x 

Holes  are  made  in  the  leaves 
in  summer 

Tomato 

Tomato  worm 

Spray,    arsenate    of 
lead 

Hand-picking.  But  few  of  the 
large  green  worms  during 
the  season  in  most  localities 

218   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Diseasp: 


VEGETABLES 

DISEASE 

CONTROL 

REMARKS 

Asparagus 

Rust 

Bordeaux         5-5-50 
plus  resin-sal  soda 
soap 

Plant  new  bed  of  clean  plants 
in  a  clear  soil 

Bean 

Anthracnose 

Bordeaux  5-5-50 

Brown  blotches  on  bean  and 
stem.  Plant  disease-resis- 
tant varieties 

Beet 

Leaf  spot 

Bordeaux  mixture 

Purple  blotches  causing  leaves 
to  rot.  Spraying  not  very 
satisfactory 

Beet 

Scab 

Plant  in  clean  soil 

Beet  has  scabby  warts  on  it 

Cabbage,  Cauli- 
flower &  Brus- 
sels sprouts 

Club  root 

Treat  land  with  lime 
six  years 

Do  not  plant  any  of  the  cab- 
bage family  on  soil  having 
club  root  in  it.  Eliminate 
weeds  belonging  to  the  same 
family 

Celery 

Early  blight 

Remove     and      burn 
plants 

Yellow  spots  on  foliage.  Mostly 
in  seed  bed.  Plant  healthy 
plants  only 

Celery 

Late  blight 

Spray,     ammoniacal 
copper     carbonate 
eight  applications 

Good  drainage  recommended. 
Also  clean  culture.  Does 
not  pay  to  spray  on  a  small 
scale 

Cucumber 

Downy  mildew 

Bordeaux,  5-5-50 

Destroy  plants  having  the  mil- 
dew in  the  fall 

Cucumber 

Wilt 

No  effective  remedy 

Burn  plants 

Lettuce 

Drop 

Clean  soil 

Plants  become  soft,  slimy  mass 

Lettuce 

Tipburn 

No  remedy 

Caused  by  rapid  loss  of  moist- 
ure.   Not  a  disease 

Onion 

IMildew 

Bordeaux         5-5-50 
and  resin-sal  soda- 
soap 

Spray  as  soon  as  disease  ap- 
pears, tops  drooping  over. 
Repeat  every  10  days 

Tomato 

Leaf  spot 

liordeaux  5-5-50 

Burn  diseased  plants  in  fall. 
Spray  every  two  weeks 

Turnip 

Club  root 

Same    treatment    as 
cabbage 

Do  not  feed  diseased  turnips 
to  hogs  and  then  put  man- 
ure on  the  soil.  Spreads 
disease 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


219 


Fig.  127. —  Corn  worms  busily  at  work.     The  mother  lays  her  eggs 
near  the  silk  and  her  children  go  into  the  ear  of  corn. 


The  following  table  shows 
tho  temperatures  at  Avhicli  the 
plants  mentioned  are  liable 
to  receive  injury  from  frost. 
The  temperatures  are,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  those  of 
the  air  in  contact  with  the 
plant  itself.  Frost  usually 
comes  when  the  sky  is  clear, 
the  wind  dies  down  at  sunset, 
and  the  air  has  a  crisp,  sharp 
feeling.  Plants  may  often  be 
saved  if  given  ver}^  slight  pro- 
tection—  a  cover  of  cheese 
cloth,  branches  of  trees  or 
even  newspapers.  In  small, 
sheltered  gardens  frost  may 
sometimes  be  w^arded  off  by 
building  a  smudge  fire  or  by 
placing  shallow  pans  of  water 
near  the  plants. 


Fig.  128.— Corn  smut.  Note  the 
black  mass  of  spores  under  the 
infested  ear.  The  smut  should 
be  cut  out  and  burned  before  the 
spores  fly. — Courtesi/  of  Double- 
day.  Page  &  Co. 


220  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Temperatures  Injurious  to  Plants 


PLANT  OR  FRUIT 

IX   BUD 

IX  BLOSSOM 

IX   SETTING 
FRUIT 

AT  OTHER 
TIMES 

Almonds 

28 
27 
30 
29 
31 

30 
29 
31 
29 
31 
29 
31 

30 
30 
32 
29 
32 

28 

Apples 

Apricots 

Asparagus  

Bananas  .  . 

26 
30 
26 
31 

Barley 

Beets 

25 

15  27 

Cantaloupes 

32 

32 

30-31 

20  27 

Celery 

Cucumbers 

Cymlings  or  squash. 

Flowers"' 

Grapes  

Grape-fruit 

Lemons 

Lettuce .... 

28 

31 
31 
31 
31 
30 
30 

31 

31 

31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 

31 
31 
31 
30 
31 
31 

32 
30 
30 

28 

28 

28 

12-28 

Mandarins 

Oats 

31 

31 

28 

Okra 

31 

Olives 

30 

31 

31 

(18t 

Onions 

124§ 
20 

Orangest 

30 

31 

31 

(26$ 
^29§ 

27 

Peaches  

Pears  

Peas 

29 
28 
29 
30 
30 
31 
30 

26-30 

30 
29 
30 
31 
30 
31 
31 

28-32 

30 
29 
30 
31 
30 
31 
31 

29 
28 
25 

Plums  ....           .... 

29 

Potatoes,  Irish 

Potatoes,  Sweet 

Primes 

Radishes 

31 
31 
29 
25 
30-26 

Spinach           

21 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

28 
31 
31 

28 
31 
31 

28 
31 
31 

30 
28 
31 
26 

^Vatermelons 

28-31 

Wheat 

31 
3, 

31 
31 

Walnuts,  English   .  . 

30 

28 

^Depends  on  variety,    flnjured  at  2  higher  if  continued  4-6  hours.    $Ripe.     §Green. 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


221 


Fkost  and  Temperature  Tahle 


Alabama — Birmingham 

Mobile 

Montgomery 

Arizona — Flagstaff 

Phoenix 

Yuma 

Arkansas — Fort  Smith 

Little  Rock 

California — Los  Angeles 

San  Diego 

San  Francisco 

Colorado — Denver 

Grand  Junction 

Pueblo 

Connecticut — Xew  Haven..  .  . 

Delaware — Xewark 

Washington,  D.  C 

Florida — Jacksonville 

Key  West 

Tampa 

Georgia — Atlanta 

Columbus 

Toccoa 

Idaho — Boise 

Lewiston 

Pocatello 

Illinois — Cairo   

Chicago 

Springfield   

Indiana — Bloomington 

Indianapolis 

South  Bend 

Indian  Territory — ]Muskogee. 
Iowa — Des  jMoines 

Dubuque 

Sioux  City 

Kansas — Fort  Scott 

Manhattan 

Topeka  

Kentucky — Bowling  Green..  . 

Lexington  

Loiiisville 

Louisiana — Xew  Orleans.  .  .  . 

Shreveport  

Maine — Orono 

Portland 

Maryland — Baltimore 

Princess  Anne 

^Massachusetts — Boston 

Worcester 

Michigan — Detroit 

Saginaw 

Minnesota — Minneapolis  .... 

Winnebago 

Mississippi — Biloxi    

Vicksburg 


ANXU. 

VL  TEMPERATURE 

KILLIX 

;  FROST 

]\Iean 

:Max. 

:\iin. 

Last 
in  spring 

Early  fall 

G3 

97 

13 

Mar.    4 

Oct.  25 

<)() 

97 

24 

Feb.  17 

Nov.  19 

64 

97 

19 

:\Iar.  4 

Nov.  14 

45 

92 

-18 

June  15 

Sept.  15 

70 

112 

25 

Feb.  18 

Dec.  23 

72 

113 

29 

None 

None 

00 

90 

3 

.Alar.  28 

Nov.  13 

01 

90 

7 

:\lar.  28 

Nov.  13 

63 

97 

32 

None 

None 

62 

94 

35 

None 

None 

56 

101 

38 

Feb.  15 

None 

50 

97 

-10 

Apr.  30 

Sept.  15 

51 

99 

-15 

Apr.  13 

Oct.  31 

51 

98 

-13 

.Alay  3 

Oct.   8 

48 

94 

-6 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  25 

51 

98 

-10 

Apr.  23 

Oct.   4 

53 

96 

2 

Apr.  17 

Oct.   7 

68 

97 

20 

l\'h.   18 

Nov.  27 

70 

93 

51 

None 

None 

71 

95 

32 

l-cb.  18 

Nov.  28 

60 

94 

12 

Mar.  4 

Oct.  25 

05 

101 

21 

l'\'b.  22 

Oct.  25 

58 

97 

12 

Apr.  5 

Oct.  25 

52 

104 

4 

May  5 

Oct.  30 

45 

lOS 

10 

Apr.  12 

Oct.  30 

47 

90 

-12 

:\lay  8 

Oct.  15 

57 

95 

1 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  20 

47 

94 

-15 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  25 

50 

97 

-12 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  25 

53 

100 

-11 

A\n:   20 

Oct.  20 

51 

94 

-9 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  20 

47 

94 

-11 

May  15 

Oct.   1 

59 

100 

1 

May  1 

Oct.  15 

48 

94 

-18 

A  lay  1 

Oct.  15 

46 

94 

-23 

May  15 

Oct.  25 

47 

96 

-21 

Apr.  25 

Sept.  20 

56 

100 

-11 

Apr.  15 

Oct.  15 

53 

102 

-16 

Apr.  25 

Oct.  20 

53 

98 

-10 

:\lav  1 

Oct..  20 

56 

99 

-3 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  20 

54 

94 

-3 

Apr.  15 

Oct.  25 

56 

98 

-1 

Apr.  15 

Oct.  25 

68 

95 

27 

Feb.  15 

Nov.  15 

05 

97 

13 

Mar.  5 

Nov.  15 

41 

89 

-27 

June  1 

Sept.  15 

43 

93 

-10 

Alav  2 

Sept.  25 

54 

97 

2 

Apr.  15 

Oct.  30 

53 

93 

0 

May  1 

Oct.  20 

48 

93 

-10 

Apr.  20 

Oct.  25 

47 

94 

-10 

-Alay  1 

Sept.  25 

47 

96 

-10 

May  1 

Oct.   5 

45 

96 

-20 

May  10 

Sept.  20 

42 

92 

-33 

May  15 

Oct.   5 

44 

92 

-30 

:\lay  1 

Sept.  20 

68 

98 

24 

Feb.  15 

Nov.  15 

65 

94 

18 

.Mar  4 

Nov.  15 

222   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Frost  axd  Temperature  Table — Continued 


AX^^UAL   TEMPERATURE 

KILLIX^G 

FROST 

PLACE 

jNIean 

Max. 

Min. 

Last 
in  spring 

Early  fall 

jNIissduri — Kansas  City 

St.  Louis .' 

Montana — Great  Falls 

Kalispell 

Miles  City 

53 
55 

4G 

43 

45 

48 

49 

40 

48 

48 

44 

42 

52 

54 

60 

49 

46 

46 

50 

53 

59 

58 

39 

36 

47 

54 

65 

57 

46 

53 

52 

51 

50 

64 

55 

46 

60 

58 

63 

68 

46 

51 

45 

40 

55 

56 

50 

48 

48 

53 

44 

45 

44 

43 

97 

98 

97 

94 
104 
100 

99 

99 

92 

96 

95 

97 

91 

94 
103 

89 

97 

89 

95 

90 

98 

99 

99 

96 

90 

96 
101 
102 

97 
100 

96 

92 

97 

98 

97 

105 
94 
97 

102 
91 
96 
98 
90 
89 
97 
98 
97 

100 
90 
95 
90 
94 
90 
90 

-10 
^10 
-25 
-10 
-30 
-20 
-14 
-10 
-15 
-20 
-20 
-27 
0 
0 
4 
-4 
-25 
-8 
-5 
4 
14 
14 
-40 
-40 
-8 
0 
0 
3 
0 
24 
-2 
-5 
3 
23 
9 
-20 
6 
1 
14 
24 
-15 
-5 
-18 
-30 
2 
11 
22 
4 
-9 

-25 
-20 
-20 

-28 

:\lar.  30 
Apr.  20 
May  25 
May     5 
May  20 
:\Iay     1 
Apr.  30 
Apr.  30 
i\Iay  20 
May  25 
Apr.  20 
June    5 
Apr.  20 
May     1 
May     3 
Apr.  30 
May     1 
IVIay     1 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  15 
Apr.     5 
Apr.  20 
May  15 
May  15 
]\Iay     1 
May     5 
^lay     1 
^lay     1 
T\Iay  15 
Mar.    1 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  20 
Feb.   15 
Apr.  25 
Apr.  30 
]\Iar.     1 
Apr.     5 
]\rar.  10 
Feb.      1 
Jlay  15 
Apr.  15 
]May     1 
June    1 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  20 
Mar.  15 
Apr.  30 
May  10 
Apr.  20 
Apr.  25 
Apr.  20 
June    1 
]\Iay  25 

Oct.    25 
Oct.    25 
Sept.  15 
Oct.      5 
Sept.  15 

Nebraska — Fremont 

Lincoln  

North  Platte 

Sept.  15 
Oct.    15 
Sept.  15 

Nevada — Carson  City 

Winnemucca    

New  Hampshire— Concord. .  . 

Plymouth 

New  Jersey — Cape  May 

Trenton                       •  •  • 

Sept.  15 
Sept.  15 
Sept.  30 
Sept.  10 
Oct.    30 
Sept.  20 

New  Mexico — INIesilla  Park .  . 
Santa  Fe 

Oct.    20 
Oct.    30 

New  York — Albany 

Buffalo   

Sept.  25 
Oct.    10 
Oct.    30 

North  Carolina— Asheville  . 

Charlotte  

Raleigh 

North  Dakota— Bismarck. .  . 

Devils  Lake 

Ohio— Cleveland  . .       

Oct.    15 
Nov.  10 
Oct.    30 
Sept.  15 
Aug.  15 
Oct.    30 
Oct.    25 

Oklahoma — Chandler 

Stillwater 

Oregon— Baker  City 

Oct.    25 
Oct.    25 
Oct.    15 
Nov.  15 

Pennsylvania — Philadelphia  . 
Pittsbure               

Oct.    25 
Oct.    10 

Ehode  Island— Providence. .  . 
South  Carolina— Charleston .  . 

Greenville 

South  Dakota— Pierre 

Tennessee— Memphis   

Oct.    25 
Nov.  20 
Oct.    25 
Oct.    30 
Oct.    15 
Oct.    25 

Nov.  10 

G'llveston                 

Dec.   25 

Oct.    15 

Salt  Lake  City 

Vermont— Burlington 

Northfield 

Virginia- Charlottesville 

Sept.  15 
Sept.  15 
Sept.  10 
Oct.    25 
Oct.    15 

Washington — Tacoma 

Spokane                    

Nov.  15 
Oct.    30 

West  Virginia— Elkins 

Oct.    10 
Oct.    15 

Oct.    15 

Milwaukee 

Oct.    20 
Sept.  15 

Sept.  15 

CHAPTER  XIII 

CHICKENS 
By  Prof.  Wm.  C.  Sanctuakt,  B.Sc.^ 

About  the  first  thing-  the  writer  heard  on  being  ushered  into 
this  world  was  the  cackle  of  a  lajdng  hen.  To  many  a  farmer 
and  farmer's  wife  it  is  this  same  cackling  that  means  mortgage 
lifting  and  a  profitable  business.  It  is  with  the  object  of  helping 
to  keep  the  hens  cackling  that  this  chapter  is  written.  The  basis 
for  the  selection  of  the  subject  matter  has  been  the  numerous 
and  practical  questions  asked  by  farmers  and  poultrymen. 

The  farm  flocks. — The  farm  flocks  are  producing  most  of  the 
eggs  in  America.  But  the  farm  flock  should  always  be  profit- 
able. To  be  profitable  it  should  be  either  just  large  enough  to 
utilize  the  table  and  other  farm  w^aste  or  big  enough  so  that 
the  owner  will  have  an  object  in  feeding  and  housing  it  care- 
fully and  so  that  the  eggs  and  meat  may  be  marketed  advan- 
tageously.   One  hundred  birds  makes  a  good  farm  flock. 

The  breed. —  One  of  the  dual  purpose  breeds  will  be  the  easiest 
to  handle  and  from  which  to  get  winter  eggs.  In  many  markets, 
however,  the  white  egg  brings  a  premium,  so  that  with  a  little 
more  pains  some  of  the  Mediterranean  breeds  Avill  prove  more 
profitable. 

For  f)i'oduction  from  the  dual  purpose  breeds  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  selected :  Barred  Rocks,  Rhode  Island  Reds  or 
White  Wyandottes;  from  the  white  egg  breeds  probably  the 
AVliite  Leghorn  should  be  chosen.  Ninet}^  per  cent  of  America's 
hens  will  be  found  from  among  these  breeds.  In  purchasing 
foundation  stock,  the  best  plan  is  to  buy  from  some  nearby  poul- 
trjmian  whose  flocks  can  be  seen  and  the  performance  of  which 
can  be  verified.  The  next  best  method  is  to  purchase  stock  from 
some  breeder  whose  birds  have  done  consistently  well  in  a  good 
laying  contest.  One  of  the  poorest  methods  is  to  purchase  stock 
based  upon  fancy  poultry  show  winnings.  These  mean  but  little 
Avhen  the  egg  basket  is  considered. 

Breeding. — The  key  to  all  breeding  methods  is  individual 
selection  and  progeny  testing.    Only  the  best  should  be  used  as 

^Xew  York  State  School  of  Agriculture,  IVforrisville,  N.  Y. 

223 


224  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

breeders  and  further  their  ability  to  make  good  should  be  meas- 
ured by  the  performance  of  their  offspring. 
The  breeding  hen  should  be  selected  from : 

1.  Vigorous  active  birds  (see  illustration). 

2.  From  hens,  that  as  pullets  hatched  in  April  or  May,  started 
to  lay  before  Christmas.    Mark  these  with  red  spiral  bands. 

3.  From  hens  that  lay  late  into  the  fall.  Mark  birds  still 
laying  after  September  15th  with  a  blue  spiral  leg  band  (see 
CuJliug). 

4.  From  good  capacity  birds  (see  illustration  and  Culling). 
The  breeding  male  should  be  selected  from : 

1.  Vigorous  birds,  preferably  ' '  cocks  of  the  w^alk. ' ' 

2.  Early  maturing  birds.  Birds  that  feather  well  and  crow 
early  are  more  likely  to  be  good  ones. 

3.  Good  capacity  birds  (see  illustration). 

Pure  bred  stock  only  should  be  kept.  In  a  flock  of  100  or  more 
birds,  new  blood  will  not  need  to  be  introduced  more  often  than 
once  in  three  or  four  years.  In  fact,  as  long  as  the  hatches  are 
good,  the  production  high  and  the  mortality  low,  new  blood 
should  never  be  brought  in.  The  swapping  of  males  is  one  of  the 
worst  of  practices.  When  new  blood  is  needed,  obtain  it  from 
the  same  source  as  the  original  stock  was  purchased.  Do  not  mix 
strains.  One  might  as  well  try  the  crossing  of  Jerseys  and  Hol- 
steins.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  old  stock  is  not  up  to  par,  it 
would  be  well  to  purchase  some  eggs  or  chicks  from  a  better 
strain.  But  the  man  ' '  from  Missouri ' '  w^ill  test  these  new  pullets 
by  hatching  and  treating  them  in  the  same  way  as  some  of  his 
old  line  and  compare  the  results.  If  they  prove  their  superiority 
in  the  egg  basket  he  will  try  mating  them  among  themselves.  If 
they  continue  to  be  better  than  his  old  line  he  will  continue  the 
new  line  but  will  under  no  circumstances  mix  them  mth  the  old 
line. 

Raising  the  average  production  of  a  flock  a  dozen  eggs  per  hen 
by  any  method  means  at  least  $25  additional  profit  per  100  hens 
each  year.  On  the  average  farm  where  poultry  is  a  side  line  it 
will  be  best  to  simply  maintain  the  good  qualities  of  a  strain 
that  some  breeder  has  built  up,  by  careful  selection  of  the  breed- 
ing flock  as  outlined  above  and  by  occasionally  going  back  to  the 
same  breeder  for  new  blood  Avhen  it  is  found  advisable. 

The  "seed-plot"  breeding  plan,  however,  offers  further  oppor- 
tunities to  the  farmer  who  has  several  hundred  hens  and  who  has 
the  time  and  inclination  to  better  his  flock.  The  first  '^  seed- 
plot"  breeding  pen  should  be  made  up  of  a  dozen  of  the  best 


\ 


CHICKENS 


225 


layers  in  the  flock  mated  to  a  vigorous  male  that  has  come  from 

a  high  producer  of  the  same  strain.    The  selection  of  this  male  is 

extremely  important  as  he,  alone,  transmits  half  the  characters 

to  all  of  the  chicks  from  

this  mating.    Each  bird  in 

the  -pen  must  be  a  good 

individual    regardless    of 

other    2:)oints.      Pedigree 

must  not  be  worshipped 

to    the    neglect    of    good 

judgment.     Trap-nest 

these    birds    during    the 

breeding  season,  at  least, 

and  mark  each  egg  with 

the  layer's  number.     On 

the  eighteenth  day,  if  the 

eggs  are  in  an  incubator 

put  each  hen's  eggs  in  a 

separate   cheese   cloth   or 

mosquito-nettiug  bag,  or  if 

the  eggs  are  under  hens, 

put  one  hen's  eggs  under  a  single  hen. 

he  called  the  1920  mating,  the  second  year's  the  1921  mating,  etc. 

Toe-x^unch  all  the  chicks 
from  the  iirst  or  1920  mat- 
ing in  the  right  web  of  the 
riglit  foot.  Punch  chicks 
from  the  1921  mating  in 
the  inside  web  of  the  right 
foot,  etc.  There  are  fif- 
t  e  e  n  different  combina- 
tions of  toe-punches.  This 
will  permanently  identify 
each  year's  chicks.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  toe-punch  it 
is  advisable  to  at  the  same 
time  put  small  pigeon 
bands  about  the  chicks' 
legs  just  close  enough  so 
that  the  chicks  "will  not 
lose  them.  Do  this  when 
the  chicks  are  taken  from 
Fig.  130.— a  vigorous,  active  hen.  the  bags.     A  h  o  u  t   four 


Rectangular  body  deep  in  the  rear. 


This  first  mating  will 


226  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Aveeks  later,  these  bands  should  be  removed  and  placed  about  the 
ligament  of  the  wing  web  close  to  the  "wrist"  joint  and  fastened. 
At  maturity,  additional  hen-size  bands  may  be  put  on  the  legs. 
Keej)  records  of  these  mjirks  and  numbers.  The  pullets  from 
these  chicks  should  be  put  into  a  pen  by  themselves  and  at  least 
a  pen  egg  record  kept.  If  these  birds  do  better  than  the  rest 
of  the  pullets  from  the  flock  matings  that  have  otherwise 
been  treated  the  same,  progress  has  been  made  and  the  plan 

should  be  contin- 
ued. The  cockerels 
from  this  1920  mat- 
ing, if  good  indi- 
viduals, can  then 
be  used  on  the  rest 
of  the  birds  in  the 
flock  matings  the 
following  Spring. 
For  the  second 
year's,  or  1921 
"seed-plot"  breed- 
ing pen,  use  the 
same  old  male  with 
about  a  dozen  of 
his  daughters. 
Test  the  pullets 
from  this  mating 
in  the  same  way. 
If  this  old  male  is 
known  to  have 
come  from  an  ex- 
ceptionally good 
hen  this  mating  is 
particularly  desir- 
able. The  third, 
or  1922  season,  the 
same  original  male  may  be  used  upon  his  granddaughters  if 
the  1921  mating  has  proven  successful.  A  cockerel  from  the 
first,  or  1920  mating,  could  be  used  on  these  1921  pullets,  or 
a  cockerel  from  the  1921  mating  could  be  used  on  the  original 
hens  of  the  first  mating.  This  latter  would  be  particularly 
desirable  if  the  hens  in  this  first  mating  were  better  than  the 
male.  Many  matings,  and  the  progeny  from  them,  may  have 
to  be  discarded  as  breeders  and  new  starts  made  from  the 


Fig.  131. —  A  poor  capacity  bird  and  early  moulter. 


CHICKENS 


227 


general  flock,  but  one  should  try  many  times  before  discarding 
this  method. 

If  two  or  more  ''seed-i)lot"  pens  can  be  used,  many  more  com- 
binations can  be  tried  and  progress  made  more  quickly.  The 
above  method  is  making  use  of  more  or  less  in-breeding,  called 
line-breeding  because  the  mating  of  too  closely  related  birds  is 
avoided.  All  of  our  best  breeds  of  domesticated  animals  have 
been  perfected  and  made  uniform  by  line-breeding.  It  is  easily 
seen  that  this  ^'seed-plot"  method  will  result  in  a  very  uniform 
flock  of  birds  representing  in  a  short  time  almost  the  same  blood 
lines  as  that  of  the  first  ''seed-plot''  pen.  This  method  necessi- 
tates the  keeping  of 
the  best  birds  for 
several  years.  Ex- 
ceptional  birds 
should  be  kept  as 
long  as  they  wdll 
breed.  The  writer 
has  used  the  above 
method  very  suc- 
cessfully. 

Trap-nests  pre- 
sent the  only  correct 
means  of  measuring 
the  productive  ca- 
pacity of  henSo  If 
traps  can  be  used^ 
the  first  place  should 
be  in  the  breeding- 
pens.  The  breeders 
in  the  "seed-plot" 
pen  should  be  trap- 
ped during  the  mat- 
ing season.  Next, 
they  should  be  used 
on  some  of  the  more 
choice  pullets  dur- 
ing the  least  busy 
season  of  the  year  to  determine  their  rate  of  production  and 
to  help  in  the  selection  of  birds  to  go  into  special  breeding- 
pens.  Birds  that  wall  lay  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  eggs  in 
any  one  month  have  great  capacity  to  lay  and  if,  with  this  capa- 
city, they  have  inherited  aljilitj^  to  start  laying  early  as  pullets 


Fig.  132. —  A  good  capacify  cockerel. 


228  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FAEMERS 


and  to  continue  late  as  hens,  and  last  of  all  these  eggs  hatch  well, 
there  are  no  better  hens  to  be  had  anywhere.  There  are  but  very 
few  conditions  that  will  warrant  trapping  all  the  birds  the  entire 
year. 

Culling  should  be  practiced  at  all  times  of  the  year  with  all 
the  birds,  young  and  old,  but  the  layers  are  most  easily  culled 
during  July,  August  and  September.  Begin  in  July  and  go 
through  the  flock  every  tAvo  weeks  with  a  flashlight  and  cull  out 
all  the  c|uitters. 

The  yellow  coloring  pigment  in  a  yellow-skinned  bird  starts 

to  leave  different 
parts  of  her  body 
in  the  following 
order  when  she 
l)ogins  to  lay: 

1.  The  vent, 
very  quickly. 

2.  The  eye- 
ring,  quickly. 

3.  The  ear- 
lol)es,less  quickly. 

4.  The  beak,  in 
a  month  or  two. 

5.  The  shanks, 
completely 
in  about  four 
months. 


^B^^.' 

ir^'^' '"*«•'-•■'" 

— Stf 

Bij—^ 

^^^1 

■-      i 

'        ^^^1 

m.--^ 

....-— ^HHi 

■:i,idH 

Fig.  133. —  A  good  capacity  bird. 


Body 
other 

loss    of 
matter, 


changes, 

than  the 
coloring 
also    oc- 


cur as  laying  pro- 
gresses and  apply  to  all  breeds.  The  bird  that  has  been  laying 
best  will  have: 

1.  A  soft,  well-developed  abdomen  and  a  large  moist  vent.  A 
sagging  abdomen,  however,  is  undesirable,  except  in  very  old 
birds. 

2.  A  soft  velvety  skin  and  thin  pelvic  bones  due  to  loss  of  fat. 

3.  A  lean,  clean-cut  head  with  Avattles  fitting  up  close. 

4.  A  bright  red  comb.  The  comb  expands  and  contracts 
directly  as  the  ovaries  expand  and  contract. 

5.  Good  capacity,  as  measured  by  length  and  depth  of  body. 
The  bird's  body  should  be  deeper  in  the  rear  than  in  front  (see 


CHICKENS  229 

illustration).  With  males  the  body  is  iisnally  more  shalloAv  in 
the  rear.  But  the  males  that  have  back  and  breast  line  most 
nearly  parallel  are  most  likelj^  to  transmit  the  greatest  capacity 
to  their  daughters. 

6.  Body  lines  that  appear  rectangular,  with  pronounced 
angles  rather  than  rounding  curves  (see  illustration). 

The  quitters  and  poor  layers  have  just  the  opposite  characters, 
such  as  dry,  small,  puckered  vents;  hard  abdomens,  firm  skin, 
shrunken,  -pale  combs ;  yellow  vent,  beak,  shanks,  etc.,  and  shal- 
low, short  bodies,  indicating  lack  of  capacity. 

FEEDING 

The  laying  hen  requires  in  her  ration  the  same  elements  that 
she  obtains  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  Avlien  given  unlim- 
ited range  and  access  to  i)lenty  of  grain.  But  she  can  obtain 
these  foods  during  these  seasons  only  and  if  the  farmer  is  to  get 
her  to  lay  profitably  during  the  rest  of  the  year  he  nmst  supple- 
ment what  nature  fails  to  supply.  The  two  foods  that  are  largely 
responsible  for  the  sj^ring  lay  are  the  abundance  of  tender 
greens  and  small  animal  life.  These,  with  grain,  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  start  them  laying.  When  the  hot  weather  sets  in,  the 
greens  become  dry  and  hard,  and  many  of  the  worms  burrow 
deep  into  the  soil.  These  conditions  Avith  the  hot  Aveather  imme- 
diately cause  the  egg  yield  to  drop.  As  fall  api^roaches  more 
natural  laying  conditions  again  are  evident  in  the  cooler 
weather,  new,  tender  greens  and  another  crop  of  Avorms.  But  at 
this  time  many  birds  start  to  moult  and  they  are  going  to  need 
these  foods  to  manufacture  a  ncAV  coat  and  so  cannot  put  this 
food  into  the  egg  basket.  This  feather-building  takes  from  sixty 
to  ninety  clays.  This  is  a  vacation  that  all  the  hens  must  take. 
With  Avinter  and  its  cold  temperatures,  no  greens  nor  animal 
food,  the  hen  Avould  naturally  continue  on  this  A^acation  until 
Avarmer  weather  again  brought  nature's  natural  reproductive 
season. 

The  laying  ration,  therefore,  must  contain  Avhat  nature  sup- 
plies in  the  spring.    This  should  be  then: 

1.  Animal  food  in  the  form  of  meat  scrap  or  better  in  the 
form  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk. 

2.  For  best  results  and  to  insure  good  hatches  in  the  spring, 
green  leaf  food  is  necessary.  Roots  are  good  but  Avill  not  take 
the  place  of  the  green  leaf  elements  for  good  hatches. 

3.  A  mash  of  ground  feeds. 

4.  A  scratch  grain  made  of  tAvo  or  more  grains. 


230  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

5.  Oyster  sliell,  grit  and  charcoal,  accessible  at  all  times. 

6.  An  abundance  of  fresli  water. 
A  good  laying  ration: 

Mash. —  Equal  parts  of  meat  scrap,  corn  meal  or  gluten  feed, 
wheat  bran,  gromid  oats,  wheat  middlings. 

Scratch  grain. —  Equal  parts  of  corn,  wheat,  oats. 

A  good  mash  will  contain  twenty  per  cent  meat  scrap,  about 
twenty  per  cent  wheat  bran,  about  twenty  per  cent  corn  or  gluten 
feed  and  the  balance  in  ground  oats,  middlings  or  other  available 
ground  feeds  that  are  not  very  concentrated.  Corn,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  buckwheat,  peas  and  almost  any  home  grown  grain 
except  r^^e,  may  be  ground  and  used  in  the  mash.  But  the  mash 
should  always  contain  wheat  bran  and  meat  scrap  (if  milk  or 
meat  is  not  provided  in  some  other  way). 

One  farmer  uses  nothing  but  calf  heads  and  other  waste  from 
his  farm  butchering  as  the  only  source  of  animal  food.  His 
birds  lay  well  and  his  eggs  hatch  well.  As  soon  as  the  birds 
finish  one  head  he  gives  them  another. 

Milk  will  take  the  place  of  meat  and  may  be  fed,  always  sour, 
in  pans,  all  they  will  drink. 

A  good  scratch  grain  will  be  made  of  at  least  half  corn  or 
wheat,  or  both.  The  other  half  may  be  made  of  any  grain  that 
can  be  raised  on  the  farm  or  bought  reasonably,  wdth  the  excep- 
tion of  rye.  Less  corn  and  buckwheat  should  be  fed  in  the 
summer. 

The  method  of  feeding  should  be  such  as  to : 

1.  Induce  exercise. 

2.  Cause  the  birds  to  eat  the  right  proportions  of  mash  and 
grain. 

Exercise  is  induced  by  feeding  as  frequently  as  possible  very 
small  amounts  of  grain  during  the  day  in  a  litter  about  six 
inches  deep.  During  the  winter,  a  small  pail  containing  the 
day's  grain  allowance  may  be  placed  in  each  pen  and  a  handful 
scattered  each  time  the  attendant  goes  through  the  pen.  An 
hour  before  the  birds  go  to  roost  the  remainder  of  the  day's 
allowance  is  scattered  in  the  litter. 

The  right  proportions  of  mash  and  grain  are  maintained  by 
restricting  the  amount  of  grain  the  hens  would  naturally  eat. 
They  prefer  the  grain  to  the  rather  unpalatable  dry  mash.  The 
following  daily  amounts  of  grain  for  each  one  hundred  hens,  of 
any  breed,  has  given  excellent  results  at  the  Vineland  Contest : 

i2  pounds  during  November,  December,  January,  February, 
March  and  April. 


CHICKENS  231 

10  i)omids  during  May  and  June. 
8  pounds  during  July. 
6  pounds  during  August. 
5  pounds  during  September  and  October. 
This  manner  of  feeding  Avill  cause  the  hens  to  eat  much  more 
mash  during  the  sununer  and  fall  when  they  need  it  most. 

The  successful  feeding  of  the  chick  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant phases  in  prorital)le  poultry  keeping.  Probably  there  have 
been  more  failures  in  the  business  through  inability  to  reproduce 
the  flock  than  from  any  other  cause.  For  the  first  forty-eight 
hours  after  hatching  the  chick  should  have  no  feed.  Then  only 
absolutely  clean,  sweet  feed  should  be  given. 

The  first  day,  when  the  chicks  are  brought  to  the  hover  in  the 
late  afternoon,  each  chick  is  given  a  drink  of  water  and,  if  pos- 
sible, of  sour  milk.  They  are  then  placed  under  the  hover.  Do 
not  chill  the  chicks.  The  following  mixture,  by  weight,  is  next 
scattered  on  a  clean  newspaper: 

10  commercial  chick  grain        1  chick  charcoal 
5  wheat  bran  5  chick  grit 

5  rolled  oats  1  chick  bone 

Scatter  some  shredded,  tender  green  food  over  this.  Until  it 
becomes  dark  do  not  leave  the  chicks  long  to  themselves.  Con- 
tinue teaching  the  chicks  to  eat  and  drink,  and  place  the  chicks 
under  the  hover  frequently  until  they  learn  to  know  it  as  their 
foster  mother.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  this  first 
afternoon. 

The  second  day  the  same  mixture  may  be  kept  before  them  on 
clean  newspapers  or  in  small  V-shaped  troughs.  In  the  middle 
of  the  forenoon  and  afternoon  bread  or  johnny  cake,  moistened 
in  milk,  should  be  fed;  or  a  mixture  in  the  proportions  of  a 
quart  of  bran  and  rolled  oats,  equal  parts,  with  three  boiled  first- 
test  infertile  incubator  eggs,  including  tlie  shell,  may  be  ground 
together  and  fed.  All  moist  mixtures  should  be  cleaned  up  in 
a  few  minutes  and  should  be  mixed  daily.  Do  not  overfeed. 
From  the  second  day  on,  there  should  be  no  chick  grain  or  moist 
feed  in  sight  except  at  feeding  time. 

From  the  third  day  on  the  small  chick  grains  should  be  fed 
alone  and  scattered  or  buried  in  the  litter,  morning,  noon  and 
night.  Feed  only  what  they  will  clean  up  in  an  hour  or  two. 
Continue  feeding  the  grain  this  way  until  the  chicks  are  hopper 
fed.  Grit  should  be  accessible.  The  following  dry  mash,  by 
weight,  should  be  kept  before  them  in  shallow  boxes  with  a  one- 


232  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

half-inch  square  mesh  wire  grating  resting  on  top  of  the  feed  to 
jDrevent  Avasting : 

1  wheat  bran  1      middlings 

1  rolled  oats  %  best  sifted  meat  scrap 

1  corn  meal      -  V^  granulated  bone  meal 

A  little  charcoal 

If  milk  cannot  be  kept  before  them  to  drink,  increase  the  meat 
scrap  to  a  full  part. 

At  this  time  the  mid-forenoon  and  mid-afternoon  feed  may  be 
changed  to  the  above  mash,  moistened  with  milk.  If  milk  is 
kept  before  them  in  shallow  dishes,  with  inch-mesh  wire  netting 
stretched  across  the  top  and  bent  over  the  edges,  good  results 
may  be  obtained  if  no  moist  feed  is  given.  Greens  should  be  fed 
at  least  twice  a  day  until  the  chicks  get  onto  the  ground.  Do  not 
overfeed. 

From  the  second  to  the  fourth  week  feed  as  before,  except 
that  one  feeding  of  the  moist  mash  should  be  discontinued.  The 
rolled  oats  in  the  mash  may  be  replaced  by  sifted  ground  oats. 
Do  not  overfeed. 

From  the  fourth  to  sixth  week  the  mash  may  be  gradually 
changed  so  that  it  contains  the  regular  ground  oats  and  meat 
scrap.  Also  begin  to  mix  whole  wheat  and  cracked  corn  with  the 
chick  grain.    Do  not  overfeed. 

From  the  sixth  week  to  maturity,  the  same  mash  or  the  regular 
laying  mash  may  be  put  in  larger  hoppers.  In  one  side  of  the 
hopper,  grain  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  cracked  corn  and 
wheat,  may  be  fed  to  maturity.  Where  the  chicks  are  getting 
ample  range  they  should  eat  about  equal  parts  of  mash  and 
grain. 

CHICK  POINTERS 

1.  Young    chicks    are    extremely    sensitive    to    temperature 

clianges.    Most  diarrhoeas  are  caused  by  chilling. 

2.  Stunted  chicks  are  worthless  chicks.    Start  culling  early. 

3.  Greater  damage  is  done  by  over-feeding  than  by  under- 

feeding. 

4.  Chicks  should  have  nothing  but  clean,  sweet  feed.      Feed 

musty  or  sour  foods  to  anything  but  chicks. 

5.  Chicks  ^  should    have    clean,    dry,    well-ventilated    houses. 

''Sweating"  among  half-grown  chicks  causes  more  colds 
than  too  much  fresh  air.  Apple  trees  make  ideal  roosting 
quarters  for  the  older  chicks. 


CHICKENS 


233 


6.  Chicks  should  be  raised  on  new  land  each  year.    Gape  worm 

and  other  chick  troubles  will  be  largely  avoided  in  this  way. 

7.  AVell  grown  chicks  are  the  only  kind  of  chicks  that  have  made 

good  winter  layers. 

Growing  Table  fok  Chicks    (Lewis  at  Vineland  Contest) 

WEIGHT   OP    100   CHICKS 


WKEK 

FED  NO  MILK 

FED  MILK 

American 
breeds 

Leghorns 

American 
breeds 

Leghorns 

At  hatch  

1 

8  lbs. 

10  " 

13  " 

21  " 

30  " 

41  " 

49  " 

65  " 

78  " 

93  " 

108  " 

129  " 

140  " 

8  lbs. 

10  " 

15  " 

23  " 

33  " 

42  " 

54  " 

71  " 

87  " 

102  " 

116  " 

132  " 

141  " 

8  lbs. 
10  " 

11  :: 

42  " 
62  " 
87  " 
105  " 
134  " 
155  " 
175  « 
190  " 
204  " 

8  lbs. 
12  " 

2 

16  " 

3 

28  " 

4 

45  " 

5 

6H  " 

6 

C)9   " 

7 

112  " 

8 

135  " 

9 

1 50  " 

10 

1 65  " 

n 

173  " 

12 

177  " 

At  this  time  cockerels  removed   and  sold  as  broi 


Fattening  for  market  pays  even  with  the  old  hens  in  many 
cases.  Four  parts  of  corn  meal,  one  part  of  low-grade  flour  and 
one  part  of  ground  oats  moistened  with  nine  parts  of  sour  skim 
milk  or  buttermilk  makes  a  good  crate  fattening  ration.  Birds 
to  be  fattened  in  this  way  should  be  starved  for  twenty-four 
hours.  Then  start  feeding  the  mash  in  small  amounts  until  by 
the  third  day  they  are  given  what  they  will  clean  up  in  te7i 
minutes.  Continue  for  ten  days  to  two  weeks.  PhTUouth  Kocks 
will  gain  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  pounds  in  this  time.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  birds  relish  each  meal.  Over- 
feeding must  be  avoided. 

Breeding  stock  should  not  be  forced  so  much  for  winter  ep^fi; 
production.  They  should  be  fed  a  little  more  grain  and  less 
mash:  should  be  made  to  work  more  and  should  have  all  the 


234  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

green  feed  they  mil  eat.  If  there  is  a  limited  amount  of  green 
leaf  feed,  save  this  for  the  breeders  and  particularly  for  the  four 
weeks  just  previous  to  the  time  when  hatching  eggs  are  wanted. 
Mangels  and  roots  will  not  take  the  jilaee  of  cahbage  and  other 
green  leaf  feeds  when  hatchable  eggs  must  be  had. 

HOUSING 

Poultry  houses  are  built  to  keep  the  hens  comfortable.  When 
the  birds  are  fed  rations  that  approximate  the  natural  feed  found 
in  the  spring  and  are  protected  from  the  storms  and  excessively 
low  temperatures  of  winter  a  profitable  egg  yield  will  result. 
Ever}^  poultry  house  should  be  built  to  maintain  these  con- 
ditions : 

1.  Dryness,  which  depends  largely  upon  proper  ventilation, 
and  the  distance  of  the  floor  above  the  outside  ground  level. 
The  hen  gives  off  the  body  waste  moisture  through  the  breath 
and  not  through  the  urine  as  other  animals  do.  Therefore  the 
hen  requires  more  ventilation  as  compared  with  the  other 
domestic  animals. 

2.  Sunlight  is  nature's  disinfectant  and  comfort  tonic. 

3.  Protection  from  excessive  Jieat  or  cold. —  In  winter  the 
average  man  will  confine  his  birds  too  closely.  Good  ventilation 
is  obtained  only  at  the  expense  of  some  heat,  so  that  the  skillful 
poultr^mian  is  the  one  who  is  most  successful  in  this  compromise. 
A  bird  with  a  frosted  comb  is  not  a  laying  bird  but  hens  that 
are  not  too  closely  confined  in  the  fall  Avill  be  able  to  stand  much 
lower  temperatures  than  those  which  have  been  shut  up  tightly 
at  the  first  cold  snap. 

A  laying  house  that  has  the  features  necessary  to  maintain 
comfortable  conditions  in  a  climate  like  that  of  Central  Ncav 
York  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  Its  dimensions  are,  for  each 
unit  of  one  hundred  hens,  twenty  feet  deep  by  eighteen  feet  wide, 
five  feet  high  in  the  rear  and  nine  feet  high  in  the  front. 

At  ''A"  the  floor  level  will  be  noticed. 

"B"  and  **B'"  are  two  nine-light,  eight  by  ten-inch  pane 
windows  that  tip  back  in  Sheringham  valves,  permitting  of 
adjustment  according  to  weather  conditions.  In  the  summer 
and  on  nice  days  in  winter,  one  or  all  may  be  lifted  out  of  their 
places.    All  six  openings,  in  each  pen,  are  letting  in  light. 

' '  C  "  and  ' '  C" '  are  two  burlap  screens  which  prevent  excessive 
drafts  when  strong  winds  are  blowing  and  prevent  the  snow 
from  entering.  Most  of  the  time,  one  or  more  of  the  upper 
windows  should  be  out  of  the  valves  even  in  the  A^nnter. 


CHICKENS 


235 


''D"  is  the  summer  ventilator. 

'^E"  is  the  emergency  curtain  made  of  burlap  and  hung  at  a 
distance  from  the  dropping  board  equal  to  the  width  of  and 
down  to  the  same  level  as  the  dropping  board.  On  many  still 
zero  night  this  curtain  can  be  lowered  and  the  rest  of  the  win- 
dows kept  open.  This  makes  it  much  easier  to  keep  the  rest  of 
the  pen  dry,  gives  the  birds  much  purer  air  and  yet  protects 
them  from  the  extreme  cold. 

*'F"  is  a  ceiling  which  makes  an  air  space  between  the  birds 


\> \  Vv~^-|^N -^/ %>c^\ >  N^ ^>^"~>  >  -^ /^/.y-sr  ( ,-\ >  / '-7 / 


i 


Fig.  134. —  Lavincr  hous 


and  the  cold  roof  and  also  prevents  the  draft  that  would  result 
when  the  summer  ventilator  is  open. 

Equipment  for  the  laying  house  is  shown  in  the  illustration, 
except  for  the  mash  hopper.  "H,"  "H',"  and  "H'"'  represent 
three  tiers  of  nests  above  which  are  the  broody  coops.  The  nests 
should  be  twelve  inches  by  fourteen  inches  by  fourteen  inches 
liigh.  The  openings  should  be  to  the  rear.  The  top  of  the  bottom 
nests  furnishes  the  bottom  for  the  next  tier,  etc.  The  nests  as 
all  other  equipment  should  be  easily  removable  for  houseclean- 
ing  and  in  case  the  mites  should  get  into  the  house.  Most  houses 
are  supplied  with  mash  hoppers  that  furnish  about  four  feet  of 
opening  for  one  hundred  birds.  Probably  double  this  amount 
would  enable  the  weaker  birds  to  greatly  improve  their  Qgg 
record.  The  water  pail  rack  shown  in  the  illustration  can  be 
improved  by  enclosing  with  lioards  and  filling  with  straw  which 
will  prevent  the  water  from  freezing  so  quickly.    The  mash  hop- 


236  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

per  and  Avater  paid  can  be  placed  on  the  wall  opposite  to  the 
nests. 

A  practical  colony  house  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  Its 
dimensions  are  ten  by  ten  feet,  five  feet  high  in  the  rear  and 
seven  feet  in  the  front.  The  windows,  in  Sheringham  valves, 
should  be  placed  above  the  center  of  the  front  to  prevent  drafts. 
The  back  ventilator  is  most  essential  for  a  colony  house. 

Artificial  lights  have  proven  very  successful  in  increasing 
winter  eggs.     The  year's  total  is  not  so  greatly  increased  but 


Fig.  135. —  Colony  house. 


Crahn"! 


the  increased  total  income  due  to  the  high-priced  winter  eggs 
makes  the  installment  of  lights  a  fine  investment.  Unless  care- 
fully managed,  lights  may  lessen  the  hatchability  of  the  eggs, 
so  that  beyond  maintaining  a  twelve-hour  day  they  should  not 
be  used  for  the  breeders.  Making  the  day  about  fourteen  hours 
long  seems  to  give  best  results  for  the  layers.  Keeping  the 
lights  on  from  dusk  to  about  eight  p.  m.  is  about  right.  On 
many  farms  where  electricity  is  used,  putting  on  the  lights  at 
chore  time  in  the  morning  and  shutting  them  off  after  supper 
will  be  found  convenient.  With  lights,  a  slight  decrease  in  pro- 
duction may  be  expected  in  April  and  May,  but  this  happens 
when  eggs  are  cheapest.     Gasoline  lanterns  have  been  used 


CHICKENS 


231 


successfully  where  electricity  or  gas  is  not  to  be  had.  With 
electricity  a  dimming  arrangement  should  be  installed  to  allow 
the  birds  a  chance  to  get  back  on  the  roosts.  A  sixty  watt  lamp 
is  about  right  for  a  one  hundred  hen  unit  (see  diagram  for  an 
alarm  clock  wiring  system). 


To  Mam  Ltne 


60  iVoit  Lamp 
'OiYatt  Lamp 


Fig.  136. —  Automatic  lighting  switch. 

SANITATION 

Cleanliness  makes  for  comfort  and  prevents  the  spread  of 
disease.  Dead  birds  should  be  buried  deeply  or  burned.  They 
should  not  be  put  on  the  manure  pile  to  be  drawn  out  on  the 
farm  Avhere  a  colony  of  chicks  may  later  contract  the  same 
trouble  that  caused  the  death  of  the  first  birds.  In  Avinter  a 
barrel  may  be  used  in  which  to  keep  the  dead  birds.  Keep  the 
bodies  covered  with  ashes  or  earth  until  spring  permits  burial. 

At  least  one  thorough  house  cleaning  should  be  made  in  Sep- 
tember. All  nests,  dropping  boards,  and  other  equipment  should 
be  removed  from  the  house,  disinfected  and  allowed  to  sun.  The 
rest  of  the  house  should  be  scrubbed  with  a  broom  and  be 
sprayed  with  a  good  disinfectant. 

A  good  home-made  disinfectant  is  recommended  by  the  Maine 
Station.  This  is  made  from  "Commercial  Cresol"  and  may  be 
ordered  from  a  drug  store. 

''Use  care  in  handling  the  Commercial  Cresol  as  it  is  very 
strong  and  burns  severely.  This  is  the  formula :  Measure  out 
three  and  one-fifth  quarts  of  raw  linseed  oil  in  a  four  or  five 
gallon  crock;  then  weigh  out  in  a  dish  1  pound  six  ounces  of 
commercial  lye  or  Babbitt's  potash.  Dissolve  this  lye  in  as  little 
water  as  will  completely  dissolve  it.  Start  with  half  pint  of 
water,  and  if  this  will  not  dissolve  all  the  lye,  add  more  water 
slowly. 


238     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  Fx\RMERS 

*'Let  tills  stand  for  at  least  three  hours  until  the  lye  is  com- 
pletely dissolved  and  the  solution  is  cold ;  then  add  the  cold  lye 
solution  very  slowly  to  the  linseed  oil,  stirring  constantly.  Not 
less  than  five  minutes  should  be  taken  for  the  adding  of  this 
solution  of  lye  to  the  oil.  Continue  stirring  until  the  solution  is 
like  soft  soap.  This  ought  not  to  take  more  than  a  half  hour. 
Now  add  slowly,  while  stirring,  the  eight  and  one-half  quarts  of 
Commercial  Cresol.  This  makes  a  stock  solution  that  will  mix 
wdth  water  in  any  proportion. ' '  Two  or  three  tablespoons  to  a 
gallon  of  water  for  disinfecting  and  about  twice  that  for  mites. 

DISEASES 

Prevention  and  isolation  are  the  two  conmion  practices  to  be 
recommended  supplemented  by  individual  treatment  only  in 
cases  of  valuable  breeding  birds,  immediate  removal  of  causes 
and  isolation  of  individuals  are  the  two  best  remedies.  The 
most  common  troubles  are  those  of  the  bowels  and  when  general 
flock  treatment  is  needed  epsom  salts  or  castor  oil  will  help 
either  diarrhoea  or  constipation.  Use  one  teaspoon  of  salts  to  a 
bird.  Most  individual  cases  should  be  given  the  salts  or  oil  and 
then  only  green  food  and  water  for  a  week  or  so.  As  the  bird 
improves  it  can  be  worked  back  to  the  regular  ration. 

Bumblefoot,  abscess  on  bottom  of  foot.  Cause :  Jumping  down 
onto  hard  floors.  Treatment:  Open,  remove  pus,  clean  \\Ai\i 
peroxide,  fill  with  salve,  bandage. 

Canker,  patches  in  mouth  and  on  tongue.  Cause :  Associated 
with  roup.    Treatment:   See  Roup. 

Catarrh  and  colds,  sneezing  and  watery  eyes.  Cause :  Damp- 
ness, poor  ventilation,  drafts.  Treatment:  Remove  cause;  put 
birds  in  Avarm,  dry  place,  try  starvation-green-food  treatment 
suggested  above ;  clean  nose  passages  by  dipping  head  into  two 
per  cent  disinfecting  solution,  finish  with  sweet  oil  on  affected 
parts.    Colds  almost  always  indicate  bad  housing  conditions. 

Chicken-pox,  red-brown  wart-like  ulcers  on  head  and  comb. 
Cause:  Often  associated  with  roup.  Treatment:  Remove  warts, 
treat  with  disinfectant  and  finish  with  carbolated  salve. 

Constipation. —  Cause:  Lack  of  exercise  and  green  food. 
Treatment:  Change  conditions,  use  salts. 

Cholera,  not  common,  bright  greenish-yellow  diarrhoea,  in- 
flamed intestines.  Cause:  Specific  germs.  Treatment:  Remove 
sick  birds  and  kill  them,  clean  and  disinfect  quarters  and  yards, 
plow  latter,  watch  remaining  birds  and  kill  any  that  show  symp- 


CHICKENS  239 

toms.  Market  all  birds  left  in  flock  where  outbreak  occurred,  if 
necessary.    Strenuous  measures  necessary. 

Diarrhoea,  dropping  off  color  and  offensive.  Cause:  Bad  feed 
or  Avater,  mild  poisoning.  Treatment:  Remove  cause,  give 
l^hysic,  ]nit  charcoal  in  mash.    Acute  form  is  known  as  dysentery. 

Diphtheria. — Avery  contagious  disease  which  spreads  rapidly. 
Symptoms,  yellowish  ulcers  on  the  tongue,  mouth,  throat,  and 
Avindpipe.  Remove  affected  birds  from  flock  and  j^aint  ulcers 
with  tincture  iodin,  apply  glycerin  to  soften  crusts.  Add  a  little 
hyposuli^hate  of  soda  to  drinking  water. 

Egg  bound. —  Cause:  Abnormal  eggs  or  weakened  oviduct. 
Treatment:  Soften  vent  and  interior  with  sweet  oil,  hold  vent 
over  pail  of  steaming  water,  then  put  back  on  nest.  Careful 
manipulation  of  parts  and  egg  may  be  tried. 

Favus  or  white  comb,  grayish  white  spots  on  comb.  Treat- 
ment: Remove  and  paint  with  iodine. 

Feather  eating,  more  common  with  chicks.  Cause:  Poorly 
balanced  ration,  too  closely  confined,  no  exercise.  Treatment: 
Correct  conditions. 

Frozen  head  parts.^  Treatment:  Ointment  of  five  joarts  vase- 
line, two  parts  glycerine,  and  one  part  of  turpentine. 

Leg  weakness,  loss  of  use  of  legs.  Cause:  Too  much  fat-form- 
ing food,  lack  of  ash.  With  chicks,  too  hot  floors,  confined  to 
colon}^  house  too  long.    Correct  causes,  increase  green  food. 

Limberneck,  neck  limp,  nervous  trouble,  from  intestinal 
worms,  indigestion,  or  looisoning  from  bad  food.  Two  to  three 
teasjooons  of  turpentine,  if  due  to  worms.    Remove  cause. 

Liver  troubles,  birds  dumpish,  black  combs,  yellow  diarrhoea, 
liver  enlarged,  shrunken,  marbled.  Cause:  Too  concentrated  a 
diet,  not  enough  exercise.  Treatment:  More  exercise  and  green 
food.    Correct  ration  if  too  rich. 

Pip. — The  result  of  a  disease  in  which  there  has  been  ulcera- 
tion of  the  tongue  or  other  parts  of  the  mouth.  "Wash  the  mouth 
frecpiently  mth  water  in  which  is  dissolved  one  ounce  of  either 
boracic  acid  or  chlorate  of  potash. 

Roup,  cartarrh  symj^toms  with  cheesy  matter  and  cankers, 
swollen  eyes,  offensive  odor.  Cause :  same  as  for  colds  with  addi- 
tion of  germs.  Very  contagious.  Treatment:  Isolate  sick  birds, 
mark  with  Avhite  spiral  leg  bands,  keep  in  pen  by  themselves  and 
sell  at  end  of  season.  Disinfect  quarters.  Pens  must  be  made  dry. 

Scaley  leg,  rough  scales  caused  by  a  leg  mite.  Treatment: 
Dip  shanks,  not  feathers,  into  a  solution  of  equal  parts  of  kero- 
sene and  raw  linseed  oil. 


240  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


Tuberculosis,  rather  common,  general  dmiipishness,  with  in- 
creasing thinness,  a  bright  eye  and  ravenous  appetite.  Pale 
yellow,  hard,  small  bunches  on  spleen,  liver  and  intestines  are 
post-mortem  indications.  Cause,  specific  germ.  Is  contagious 
and  strenuous  measures  must  be  taken  to  eradicate  it.  Kill  sick 
individuals.  Raise  new  flock  on  new  ground.  Disinfect  houses 
and  yards.    Never  let  old  birds  come  in  contact  with  young. 

Diarrhoea,  white  or  any  color,  usually  from  chilling  or  bad 
feeding.  Treafme^if:  Get  after  causes.  I3oiled  rice,  mild  physic. 
Sour  skim  milk  is  good  preventative. 

Bacillary  white  diarrhoea,  many  deaths  in  first  six  days,  diar- 
rhoea not  unlike  ordinary.  Cause,  a  specific  germ  laid  in  the  egg 
by  mother  hen.  Treatment:  No  cure.  Never  breed  from  flock 
in  which  this  disease  has  been  discovered.  Use  strenuous  pre- 
ventive measures.    If  in  small  flock,  get  rid  of  it  and  disinfect. 

Coccidiosis,  similar  to  bacillary  white  diarrhoea.  Cause:  A 
specific  germ.  Is  more  apt  to  attack  chicks  later  in  life  than  is 
bacillary  diarrhoea.  Treatment:  'No  cure.  Isolate,  disinfect  and 
raise  other  chicks  on  new  ground. 

Gapes,  Y-shaped  worms  in  windpipe.  Treatment:  Remove 
with  two  horse  hairs  tied  at  the  ends  in  a  knot.  Isolate  and  raise 
new  chicks  on  new  ground. 

Aspergilosis,  chicks  sleepy,  breathing  rapid,  diarrhoea.  Cause : 
Mold  growth  in  lungs  of  chicks  from  moldy  litter.  Post  mortem, 
find  small  yellow  bunches  in  lungs  or  lungs  inflamed.  Treat- 
7nent:  No  cure.    Isolate,  remove  cause,  bury  dead  chicks. 

Note. — Material  for  diseases  freely  drawn  from  Maine  Station  BuUeton  No.  398- 
12-10. 

VERMIN 
Lice. — Rub  into  the  skin  of  the  birds  just  beneath  the  vent  and 

under  the  wings  ointment  as  large 
as  a  pea  made  from  equal  parts  of 
blue  ointment  and  vaseline.  This 
is  effective  for  six  months.  It  is 
poisonous. 

Mites  are  about  one-fourth  to 
one-half  as  large  as  lice  (see  illus- 
tration). They  live  in  cracks  dur- 
ing the  day  and  breed  in  filth. 
Mites  go  on  the  hens  at  night  and, 
unlike  lice,  are  blood-suckers. '  The 
B  presence  of  mites  is  quickly  de- 

A,  Louse ;  B,  red  mite,      tected  by  the  presence  of  gray  mat- 


CHICKENS  241 

ter  near  cracks.  Spray  thoroughly,  driving  stream  deep  into 
every  crack  within  several  feet  of  where  the  mites  are  found. 
Repeat  in  a  week  to  get  the  next  hatch.  If  this  does  not  finish 
them,  remove  all  the  equipment  and  do  the  job  still  more  thor- 
oughly. A  five  per  cent  solution  of  the  stock  cresol  recipe  is 
effective.  Mites  and  good  egg  production  are  never  found  in 
the  same  pen. 

INCUBATION 

A  good  incubator  will  prove  to  be  the  most  economical  method 
of  hatching  eggs  for  most.  The  machine  should  preferably  be 
one  of  the  standard  hot-air  machines,  provided  with  a  bimetallic 
thermostat  if  future  trouble  w^ould  be  avoided. 

INCUBATOR  POINTERS 


1.  The  best  place  for  the  incubator  is  a  well-ventilated  cellar. 

2.  Thoroughly  clean  and  disinfect  machine  before  each  hatch. 

3.  Test  thermometers. 

4.  Run  machine  empty  for  two  days. 

5.  Do  not  disturb  eggs  for  two  days  after  placing. 

(),  Turn  eggs  and  cool  twice  daily  before  attending  lamps. 

7.  Cool  eggs  until  they  begin  to  feel  cool  when  placed  near  eye. 

8.  Keep  lamp  free  of  oil,  and  shape  of  flame  round. 

9.  Test  eggs  at  end  of  first  and  second  week. 

10.  Save  infertile  first  eggs  to  boil  for  chicks. 

11.  Do  not  disturb  eggs  after  eighteenth  day. 

12.  Sprinkle  eggs  daily  with  warm  water  from  seventh  day  until 

first  egg  pips. 

13.  Never  help  chicks  out  of  shell.    Start  culling  here. 

14.  Leave  chicks  in  machine  forty-eight  hours  before  putting  in 

brooders. 

BROODING  THE  CHICKS 

The  brooder  stove  and  colony  house  (see  illustration)  make 
the  most  practical  equipment  for  brooding  one  hundred  or  more 
chicks. 

The  hover  temperature  should  be  about  ninety-five  degrees 
the  first  week  and  should  be  gradually  lowered  aliout  five  degrees 
each  w^eek  to  about  seventy-five  degrees  where  it  should  remain 
until  the  chicks  are  weaned.  The  action  of  the  chicks  makes  the 
best  thermometer.  Chicks  well  spread  out  near  the  edge  of  the 
hover  indicate  a  correct  temperature.    Sand  and  shavings  make 


242  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  best  litter.  At  first  the  chicks  should  he  confiiied  to  a  small 
area  by  means  of  a  circle  of  wire  netting.  This  should  be  gradu- 
ally enlarged  until  by  the  third  or  fourth  day,  they  are  having 
the  run  of  the  house.  When  a  week  old,  they  should  be  allowed 
to  go  outside  on  moist  ground,  at  first  only  in  a  small  place 


Flc.  138. —  Position  of  knife  to  cut  veins. 

fenced  in  near  the  door.    Gradually  enlarge  this  and  give  them 
unlimited  range  as  soon  as  conditions  permit. 

KEEPING  EGGS  AND  PICKING  POULTRY 

Waterglass  eggs  are  cheap  eggs  in  the  fall  and  winter.  A  five 
gallon  crock  will  hold  a  crate  of  eggs.  Take  only  freshly  gath- 
ered eggs  laid  in  April  or  May;  place  them  flatwise  in  the  bottom 
row  and  on  the  small  ends  for  the  other  rows  until  crock  is  filled. 


CHICKENS 


243 


To  the  eggs  as  each  layer  is  put  in  add  the  mixture  of  one  part 
of  waterglass  and  ten  parts  of  distilled  water.  Cover  crock  and 
put  in  cool  place.    The  eggs  Avill  keep  indefinitely. 

Dry-picked  poultry  is  required  in  many  markets.  Xote  dia- 
gram for  place  to  cut  the  jugular  vein  arch.  Note  also  carefully 
the  skull  showing  the  place  where  the  point  of  the  knife  must 
penetrate  a  small  portion  of  the  brain.  The  knife  is  first  thrust 
up  through  the  slit  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  to  the  left  of  the 
middle  bone  and  toward  the  eye  cavity.  Then  the  knife  must  be 
redirected  toward  the  center  of  the  head  and  to  the  brain 


Fig.  130.— Knife 


1)raiu  in  fi<imnin<T. 


through  the  optic  nerve  oi)ening.  To  do  this  the  handle  of  the 
knife  must  be  pressing  against  the  upper  beak  as  shown  at  "X" 
in  diagram.  The  vein  is  first  cut,  then  the  bird  is  immediately 
stunned.  Picking  must  follow  rapidly.  If  a  good  stun  has  been 
made  some  of  the  feathers  will  start  droj^ping  off  immediately. 


DUCKS 

Pekins  make  a  satisfactory  meat  breed,  particularly  for  sec- 
tions like  Long  Island,  whicli  are  near  a  market  that  demands  a 
h(^avy  duck. 

Indian  Runners  are  satisfactory  for  the  ^Middle  West  and 
other  sections  where  the  markets  demand  a  medium  Aveight  duck. 
The  Kunners  are  also  very  good  layers;  some  flocks,  under  good 


244  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

management,  laying  two  hundred  eggs  per  bird  per  year.  As 
Runners  lay  a  larger  egg  than  a  hen  and  which  markets  at  the 
same  or  higher  price,  the  Runner  duck  should  be  raised  more 
extensively. 

Young  ducklings  do  not  require  as  much  heat  nor  for  so  long 
as  chicks,  but  they  must  have  dry  quarters  and  plenty  of  ventila- 
tion. They  should  not  be  allowed  to  swim  until  they  get  their 
breast  feathers  and  then  only  those  which  are  to  be  kept  for 
breeders.  Plenty  of  drinking  water  and  shade  must  be  provided. 
Bread  crumbs,  hard  boiled  eggs  with  tender  greens  are  good  for 
the  first  few  days.  Duck  food  should  be  largely  soft  food.  To 
market  Pekins  at  ten  weeks  of  age,  feed  a  mash  four  times  a 
day  made  of  about  ten  per  cent  meat  scrap,  forty  per  cent  corn 
meal,  fifty  per  cent  bran  and  middlings.  Feed  this  up  to  the  last 
two  weeks.  Then  finish  on  a  mash  containing  about  15  per  cent 
meat  scrap,  seventy-five  per  cent  corn  meal  and  ten  per  cent 
bran.  The  Runners  may  be  fed  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 
Pekins.  A  regular  hen  mash  with  a  feeding  once  a  day  of  hard 
grains  may  be  used  for  the  mature  birds  for  egg  production. 

GEESE 

Geese  depend  upon  grass  and  good  pasturage  for  the  greater 
part  of  their  food.  Because  of  this  fact  more  geese  might  well 
be  raised.  In  breeding  mate  one  gander  to  two  or  three  geese 
and  do  this  in  the  fall.  In  the  spring  prepare  secretive  nests  in 
out-of-the-way  places  for  the  geese  to  lay  and  incubate  their 
eggs.  Hens  may  be  used  to  incubate  the  first  eggs  and  the  geese 
to  hatch  the  later  clutches.  Keep  the  young  away  from  the  water 
as  in  the  case  of  the  duckling.  The  gosling  may  be  fed  in  the 
same  way  as  the  duckling.  When-  about  eight  weeks  old  they 
may  be  fattened  for  market,  weighing  then  about  twelve  to  fif- 
teen pounds,  or  kept  until  fall.  Fatten  as  for  ducks,  having 
plenty  of  green  food,  grit  and  water  accessible.  Feed  the 
mature  geese  grain  night  and  morning.  In  plucking  geese  a 
good  method  is  to  scald,  wrap  in  a  burlap  bag  for  five  minutes 
and  repeat. 

TURKEYS 

Turkeys  seem  to  do  best  in  the  more  sparsely  settled  sections 
where  they  can  have  unlimited  range  over  fields  and  woods 
without  troubling  neighbors.  The  mature  turkeys  should  be  kept 
in  dry,  well-ventilated  but  draft-free  houses.  Except  during  the 
winter^  let  the  turkeys  range  freely,  feeding  a  little  wheat,  barley 


CHICKENS  245 

and  oats  in  the  afternoon.  In  the  winter  corn  and  buckwheat 
may  be  added  and  plenty  of  greens  should  be  fed.  Cabbage  is 
excellent.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  turkeys, 
old  or  young. 

The  mother  turkey  chooses  her  nest  in  the  early  spring,  begin- 
ning to  lay  in  March  or  April.  The  method  of  raising  the 
youngsters  is  very  practically  described  by  Miss  Sara  A.  Little 
in  the  American  Poultry  Advocate,  extracts  of  which  here  fol- 
low: *'From  three  to  six  hens  may  be  safely  bred  to  each  torn. 
During  incubation  turkey  and  hens  should  be  well  dusted  with 
insect  powder  each  week.  When  hatched  annoint  each  poult  on 
the  head  and  around  the  vent  with  softened  lard,  only  using  a 
very  little.  A  box  two  yards  long,  a  yard  deep  and  a  yard  high 
makes  a  fine  coop.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the  box  with  dry  sand 
or  sifted  coal  ashes.  Supply  with  water  in  a  small  fountain  and 
with  little  chick  grit  in  some  handy  receptacle  and  then  build  a 
portable  detaining  yard  by  staking  foot-wide  twelve-foot  boards 
at  each  end  of  the  front  of  the  coop,  connecting  them  at  the  other 
end  by  a  similar  board  the  length  of  the  coop. 

''  When  the  poults  are  hatched  and  dry,  remove  them  in  a 
warmly  lined  basket  to  the  kitchen  stove  and  take  the  turkey  hen 
to  a  quiet  room  Avhere  she  should  be  given  shelled  corn  and 
water.  In  about  an  hour  she  may  be  taken  to  the  coop,  which 
should  be  installed  some  distance  from  the  haunts  of  other 
poultry,  and  the  youngsters  given  to  her.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  frighten  her,  as  some  turkeys  get  much  excited  when 
hatching  and  getting  settled  with  their  young.  The  little  fellows 
will  need  no  food  for  forty-eight  hours,  and  then  the  principal 
thing  to  learn  is  not  to  feed  them  too  much.  Once  in  three  hours 
is  none  too  often  to  feed  them,  but  they  must  have  very  little  at 
each  feed.  Bread  soaked  in  milk  is  my  first  resort,  but  it  should 
be  squeezed  dry.  Finely  chopped  leaves  from  onions  and  dan- 
delions should  be  given  them  with  their  food.  Turkeys  need 
close  attention.  They  must  be  kept  dry.  Their  quarters  must 
be  cleaned  and  well  aired.  They  must  have  plent}^  of  fresh 
water,  well  guarded,  so  they  cannot  get  wet  when  drinking.'' 

''I  usually  keep  the  hen  cooped  for  two  weeks  or  more  until 
the  little  birds  seem  strong.  Then  the  hen  is  liberated  with 
the  little  folks,  when  the  grass  is  dry  in  the  forenoon.  She  should 
be  watched  so  she  will  not  w^ander  too  far,  and  returned  to  the 
coop  not  later  than  four  p.  m.  and  shut  in,  though  the  poults  need 
not  be  housed  till  later.  I  shut  them  in  closely  at  night,  making 
sure  they  cannot  escape." 


246     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

PIGEONS 

Squab  raising  on  a  large  scale  is  a  prosperous  times  business. 
As  a  side  line  on  the  farm  i)igeons  are  often  profitable.  The 
foundation  stock  should  be  good  squab  Homers.  These  will 
raise  eight  joairs  of  squabs  per  year  under  good  conditions.  Two 
nests  for  each  pair  will  be  necessary.  Unmated  birds  should 
not  be  kept  as  they  cause  trouble.  Where  birds  are  confined, 
cracked  corn  should  be  accessible  in  hoiDpers.  A  mixture  of  red 
wheat,  Canada  field  peas,  Kaffir  corn,  hulled  oats  and  hemp  seed 
is  fed  twice  a  day  on  the  floor.  Culled  peanuts  are  also  some- 
times used.  Have  dry,  clean  quarters.  Have  a  box  of  tobacco 
stems  accessible  for  nests  and  to  keep  down  lice. 


CHAPTEE  XIV 

TliK   HORSE 
By  Tkof.  W.  M.  IIaki'Ek,  ]M.S.» 

The  United  States  stands  among  the  first  nations  in  the 
number  and  quality  of  its  horses.  Possibly  Eurojje  and  the 
British  Isles  lead  in  draft  horses,  particularly  in  quality,  but 
the  United  States  leads,  and  by  long  odds,  in  the  production  of 
trotters  and  saddlers  as  Avell  as  in  work  horses  and  mules.  There 
are  about  one  hundred  million  horses  in  the  world,  of  which 
approximately  one-fifth  —  the  Thirteenth  Census  giving  the 
number  as  23,015,902  —  are  in  our  country.  Of  all  the  mules  in 
the  world,  approximately  one-half  are  in  our  country,  according 
to  the  census  the  exact  number  being  4,480,140.  These  animals 
represent  vast  Avealth  and  unrecorded  power. 

TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

There  are  three  types  of  horses:  Draft,  coach,  and  light  — 
to  which  may  be  added  the  pony  type.  Each  of  these  types  is 
distinct  as  the  form  or  conformation  best  adapted  to  one  type 
is  different  from  that  of  the  other.  There  are  a  number  of 
l^reeds  within  each  of  these  tyjies. 

Breeds  of  the  light  type. —  While  of  the  same  general  form, 
the  light  breeds  of  horses  vary  somewhat  in  conformation, 
depending  on  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  adapted.  In  gen- 
eral conformation,  however,  the  breeds  of  the  light  type  are 
rather  tall,  the  legs  long,  the  distance  from  the  knee  to  the 
withers  and  from  the  hock  to  the  hip  is  great,  the  form  somewhat 
narrow  and  often  rather  angular,  with  cleancut  features 
throughout. 

Thoroughbred. —  This  is  the  running  racehorse  and  is  of 
English  origin.  This  breed  is  very  popular  among  English 
sportsmen.  Indeed,  it  was  the  Englishman's  love  for  the  race 
that  resulted  in  the  development  of  the  breed.  As  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century  the  En^ish  Avere  importing  superior  animals 
to  improve  their  horse  stock.  These  animals  came  from  Eome, 
S^oain  and  the  Orient,  especially  Arabia  and  Barbary.    However, 

^  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University. 

247 


248  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


the  thoroughbred  has  been  bred  without  stain  of  alien  blood  for 
more  than  a  century  and  subjected  to  the  most  rigorous  system 
of  selection  for  strength  and  staying  power  by  the  test  of 
performance  on  the  turf. 

In  conformation  the  thoroughbred  represents  the  speed  type 
in  the  extreme,  being  upstanding,  clean-cut  and  lean.  The  head 
is  refined  and  clean  featured,  shoulders  sloping,  chest  deep, 
croup  long,  and  the  quarters  strongly  muscled  exhibiting  great 
driving  power.     The  lower  legs  are  clean  with  tendons  well 


Fig.  140. —  Thoroughbred,  light,  lithe,  and  agile,  a  good  type  for  speed. 

detached,  indicative  of  substance.  AVhile  all  colors  are  occa- 
sionally found,  bay  and  chestnut  are  the  more  common.  Typical 
thoroughbreds  weigh  about  one  thousand  pounds  and  they  stand 
from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high. 

Thoroughbreds  were  imported  to  the  United  States  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  first  to  Virginia,  where  they  became  very 
popular.  In  subsequent  years,  this  popularity  extended  through- 
out eastern  and  southern  States,  where  racing  was  held  in  high 
favor.  In  more  recent  years,  however,  this  popularity  has 
waned  to  a  very  marked  degree  because  of  the  restrictions  put 
upon  racing. 

Arabian. —  This  breed  is  a  native  of  Arabia  and  is  noted  for 
its  beauty,  stylish  action,  stamina,  and  endurance.    In  the  main, 


THE  HORSE  249 

it  was  developed  in  the  desert  region  and  is  the  result  of  its 
environment.  For  centuries  the  Orient  has  been  noted  for  the 
quality  of  its  horses  and  much  of  the  infused  blood  of  our 
modern  breeds  came  from  there.  England,  France  and  Germany 
began  the  imj^ortations  at  a  very  early  period.  The  best  Ara- 
bian horses  are  to  be  found  among  the  migratory  Bedouin  tribes, 
of  which  the  two  most  powerful  grou]is  are  the  Shammer  race 
of  the  north  and  the  Anezah  in  the  south,  the  latter  having  the 
best  horses. 

In  conformation  the  Arabian  is  more  symmetrical  than  the 
thoroughbred,  the  head  is  neater,  body  shorter,  ribs  more 
curved,  and  the  legs  not  so  long.  ^AHiile  the  Arabian  is  more 
stylish  in  the  carriage  of  the  head,  neck  and  tail,  and  while  he 
possesses  great  stamina  and  endurance,  he  is  not  nearly  the 
equal  of  the  thoroughbred  for  speed. 

American  saddler. —  This  breed  originated  in  the  United 
States  and  was  the  outgrowth  of  necessity.  Before  the  estab- 
lishment of  roads,  traffic  was  by  trail  through  the  forests;  and 
during  much  of  the  year  the  only  means  of  travel  was  by  horse- 
back. This  breed  was  more  popular  in  the  southern  States  and 
in  fact  so  much  of  the  breeding  has  been  accomplished  in  Ken- 
tucky that  the  breed  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  Kentucky  saddle 
horse.  Easy-going  thoroughbreds  were  used  in  the  native  stock 
to  improve  the  saddle  horse. 

The  American  saddler  is  more  stylish  in  carriage  of  head  and 
arch  of  neck  and  tail,  as  well  as  in  general  symmetry,  than  is 
the  thoroughbred.  The  shoulders  and  pasterns  are  sloping,  long 
and  springy,  thus  favoring  an  easy  gait.  The  height  and  weight 
excels  that  of  the  thoroughbred. 

The  gaits  of  the  saddle  horse  are  distinctive  and  the  breed  is 
divided  into  classes  according  to  the  number  of  gaits,  the  more 
common  of  w^hich  is  the  **  three  gaited,''  or  walk-trot-canter 
horse. 

Standard  bred.—  This  breed  includes  both  trotters  and  pacers. 
It  is  of  American  origin  and  is  the  result  of  the  American's  love 
for  driving  a  race  much  as  the  thoroughbred  for  the  English- 
man's love  for  riding.  The  breed  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin  with  foundation  animals  traceable  to  the  thoroughbred. 
Improvement  was  obtained  for  the  most  part  much  as  in  the  case 
of  the  English  thoroughbred,  by  a  rigorous  system  of  selection 
for  speed  and  endurance  by  the  test  of  performance  upon  the 
race  track. 

There  are  several  notable  families  of  standard  l)red  horses  of 


250  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

which  the  more  important  are  Hambletonians,  descending  from 
Hambletonian  10,  Mambrinos  from  Mambrino  Chief,  Clays  from 
Henry  Clay,  Hals  from  Tom  Hall,  and  the  Morgans  from  Justin 
Morgan,  the  latter  of  which  is  now  classed  as  a  separate  breed. 
In  conformation  the  standard  bred  tends  to  be  angular,  the 
muscles  and  joints  prominent,  and  the  ribs  more  or  less  notice- 
able, Avith  rear  ribs  longer,  giving  a  straighter  underline  than  in 


Fig.  141. —  Standard  breed  ;  a  good  type  from  which  to  breed  driving  horses. 

the  thoroughbred.  The  standard  bred  is  larger,  averaging  one 
thousand  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight  and  possibly  sixteen 
hands  in  height.  All  colors  are  found,  but  bays,  blacks,  and 
browns  are  the  most  common. 

This  being  America's  principal  racehorse,  speed  at  the  trot 
and  pace  is  the  major  requirement.  The  action  must  be  true, 
varying  neither  to  the  right  nor  the  left.  Long-reaching  knee 
and  hock  action  with  the  feet  picked  up  smartly  is  most  essential. 

Breeds  of  the  coach  type. —  The  breeds  of  coach  horses  are 
useful  for  stylish  action  and  carriage  or  coach  Avork.  They  owe 
their  origin  and  improvement,  in  the  main,  to  the  thoroughbred 
and  Arabian.  These  two  breeds  did  much  to  increase  the  speed 
and  improve  the  action,  as  well  as  to  increase  the  endurance  of 
the  coach  breeds. 

Hackney. —  This  breed  of  coach  horses  originated  in  England 
and  is  noted  for  its  stylish  and  high  action.    Improvement  dates 


THE  HORSE 


251 


back  to  tlie  eighteenth  century  when  the  breed  was  valued  for  its 
long  and  strong  action  at  the  trot.  At  the  i)resent  time,  how- 
ever, it  is  the  stylish,  attractive  and  often  flashy  action  of  the 
knees  and  hocks,  and  not  speed,  that  is  inijoortant,  as  this  breed 
of  horses  is  in  demand  for  fashionable  equix^ment.  This  breed 
is  poj)ular  in  America. 

The  hackney  is  more  blocky  in  form  than  any  other  coach 
breed,  has  an  intelligent  head, "neat  neck,  sti'ong  liack,  short  leg. 


Fi(i.  142. —  Hacknoy;   symmetrical  and  stylish. 

and  is  powerfully  built.  The  weight  will  average  one  thousand 
one  hundred  pounds  and  the  height  fifteen  and  one-lialf  hands. 
The  color  is  chestnut. 

French  coach, —  This  breed  is  of  French  origin  where  it  is 
known  as  demi-sang,  meaning  half-blood.  This  name  was  for- 
merly applied  to  the  offspring  of  a  cross  between  the  thorough- 
bred and  the  Norman  draft  horse,  hence  the  origin  of  the  French 
name  as  well  as  of  the  breed. 

In  form  this  breed  is  not  so  smooth  or  s^anmetrical  as  the 
hackney.  It  is  larger,  averaging  one  thousand  two  hundred 
pounds  in  weight  and  sixteen  hands  in  height.  The  bone  is 
larger  and  the  muscling  more  powerful.  The  action,  esj^ecially 
at  the  trot,  is  longer,  rather  than  high  and  flashy,  as  in  the 
hackney.  Bay,  brown  and  chestnut  are  the  more  common  colors. 
This  breed  finds  favor  in  America  where  a  large  and  rather 
active  horse  is  in  demand. 


252  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMEES 


German  coach. —  This  breed  originated  in  Germany  and  varies 
widely  in  size  and  conformation.  The  breed  assumes  different 
names  in  the  more  important  horse-breeding  States.  Thus  we 
have  the  Oldenburg  horse*  Hanoverian  horse,  Trakehnen  or 
East  Prussian  horse  and  the  like. 

In  form  the  German  coach  horse  lacks  the  syimiietry  of  the 
hackney  and  is  more  rugged,  with  the  action  at  the  walk  and 


Fig.  143. —  Pouheioii  ^talll()n;  America's  most  pnpul.ii   diatl  Jiui-<o. 

trot  longer  but  lacking  in  style.  The  weight  varies  from  one 
thousand  three  hundred  pounds  to  one  thousand  five  hundred 
pounds  and  the  height  from  sixteen  hands  to  seventeen  hands. 
Color  varies,  with  black,  brown  and  chestnut  most  common.  This 
breed  has  not  found  a  large  following  in  America. 

Breeds  of  the  draft  type. —  The  breeds  of  this  type  are  in 
striking  contrast  to  those  of  the  light  type.  The  drafters  are 
low  set,  blocky  and  short  in  the  leg.  Here  weight  is  important 
in  order  to  pull  heavy  loads.  Hence,  to  be  classed  as  a  draft 
horse,  he  must  weigh  at  least  one  thousand  five  hundred  pounds. 


THE  HORSE  253 

Percheron. —  This  breed  originated  in  France,  particularly  in 
the  region  of  LaPerche,  hence  the  name  Percheron.  The  natural 
conditions  in  France  were  such  as  to  favor  the  develoiDment  of 
ponderous  drafters  —  an  agreeable  climate,  fertile  soil  with 
abundant  forage.  The  native  horse,  though  ponderous,  lacked 
in  quality  and  action,  both  essential  to  efficient  draft  horses. 
The  Oriental  horse  played  an  important  part  in  improving  such 
deficiencies.  Large  numbers  of  eastern  horses  found  their  way 
into  France  and  Germany  as  early  as  the  eighth  century  and 
there  was  direct  introduction  of  Oriental  blood  as  late  as  1820, 
when  Godolphin  and  Gallipoli  were  purchased  for  the  horse- 
breeding  farm  at  LePin.  These  horses  were  gray  and  no  doubt 
had  much  to  do  in  developing  the  gray  color  of  the  Percheron. 
The  general  effect  of  this  Oriental  blood  has  been  to  improve  the 
quality,  action  and  style. 

For  more  than  two  centuries  the  French  government  has  given 
material  aid  to  horse-breeding.  At  present  there  are  three 
classes  of  breeding  horses  in  France.  First,  government  owned ; 
second,  government  subsidized,  the  owners  of  such  receiving  an 
annual  bonus  from  the  Minister  of  Agriculture ;  and  third,  gov- 
ernment approved.  This  close  supervision  on  the  part  of  the 
government  has  done  much  to  improve  the  Percheron  horse. 

In  conformation  the  Percheron  is  massive.  The  head,  though 
large,  is  cleancut,  the  neck  well  crested,  shoulders  sloping,  chest 
broad  and  deep,  loins  broad  and  well-muscled  with  the  quarters 
l)road  and  powerful.  The  pasterns  are  sloping,  feet  good  size, 
while  the  action  is  true  and  perhaps  second  to  none  among  draft 
horses.  The  weight  varies  from  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
pounds  to  two  thousand  two  hundred  pounds,  the  height  sixteen 
hands  to  seventeen  hands.  The  more  common  colors'  are  black 
and  gray.  Because  of  the  general  excellency  of  the  Percheron, 
it  is  the  most  important  breed  of  draft  horse  in  America. 

French  draft. —  As  the  name  would  indicate,  this  breed  is  of 
French  origin.  The  history  and  description  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Percheron.  This  similarity  often  results  in 
confusion  and  it  is  important  to  remember  that  French  Draft 
horses  cannot  be  registered  in  the  Percheron  Stud  Book  of 
America. 

Belgian. —  This  breed  of  draft  horses  originated  in  Belgium, 
a  country  fully  as  noted  as  France  for  the  size  and  quality  of  its 
horses.  The  methods  employed  by  the  two  countries  are  much 
the  same.  Possibly  there  has  not  been  as  much  oriental  blood 
introduced  to  Belgium,  though  the  Belgian  horses  are  as  refined 


254  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

as  the  Percheron  due  to  the  interest  and  effort  of  the  individual 
breeder. 

In  form,  the  Belgian  is  the  most  compact,  having  a  maximum 
weight  for  its  size.  No  breed  in  proportion  to  its  size  shows  as 
much  body  girth.  The  muscling  is  powerful  throughout.  The 
action  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Percheron  because  of  the  more 
massive  conformation.  The  weight  varies  from  eighteen  hun- 
dred pounds  to  twenty-two  hundred  pounds,  ihe  height  from  six- 


FlG.  144. —  Belgian;  tlip  type  that  gets  )ow,  massive  work  horses. 

teen  hands  to  seventeen  hands.  The  more  conunon  colors  are 
bay,  black  and  bro^ai.    The  Belgian  is  very  x)opular  in  America. 

Clydesdale. —  This  breed  originated  in  the  valley  of  the  Clyde 
River  in  Scotland,  hence  the  name.  The  valley  of  .the  Clyde  has 
long  been  known  for  powerful  farm  horses  of  superior  size  and 
strength.  Improvement  was  due  to  the  efforts  and  methods  of 
the  breeders  and  to  importation  of  draft  horses  from  England 
by  Scotch  cattle  dealers.  This  new  blood  served  to  improve  the 
quality  and  increase  the  size  of  the  n^.tive  stock.  Upon  this 
foundation,  the  modern  Clydesdale  was  reared,  the  result  of 
individual  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  horse  breeders. 

The  size  and  form  compares  favorably  with  the  Percheron, 
but  the  Clydesdale  possesses  distinctive  features.    Thus  the  back 


THE  HORSE 


255 


of  the  legs  below  the  knees  and  hock  grows  an  abundance  of 
long  hair  called  the  ' '  feather ; ' '  the  color  is  usually  bay  and  the 
characteristic  markings  are  a  white  blaze  on  the  face  and  one  or 
more  white  feet;  the  action  is  not  surpassed.  Because  of  its 
good  action,  this  breed  is  fairly  popular  in  America,  though  the 
color  and  the  feather  are  more  or  loss  ol)jectionable. 

Shire. —  This  breed  is  of  English  origin  and  is  the  outgrowth 


of  England's  attempts  to  produce  a  ponderous  horse  useful  for 
war.  One  of  the  early  improvers  of  tliis  ])roed  was  Robert  Bake- 
well,  who  did  much  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  estal)lishment  of 
modern  breeds  of  farm  animals.  The  breed  owes  its  excellency 
to  English  breeders  who  persisted  in  the  development  of  an  im- 
proved type  of  horse  through  a  long  period  of  time. 

In  general  appearance  the  Shire  resembles  the  Clydesdale, 
particularly  in  color  markings  and  the  feather  of  the  legs.    Pos- 


256  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

sibly  the  form  of  the  Shire  is  more  massive  and  more  powerfully 
built,  hut  it  lacks  the  action  of  the  Clydesdale.  The  Shire  is  not 
as  popular  in  America  though  a  number  have  been  imported 
from  time  to  time. 

Suffolk. — This  breed  is  a  native  of  England  and  though  vary- 
ing in  uniformity,  possesses  many  desirable  qualties.  Formerly 
there  were  several  tribes  of  Suffolks,  such  as  the  Blake  tribe, 
Wright  tribe,  and  the  Boxer  tribe.  In  more  recent  years  there 
has  been  cooperation  in  the  improvement  so  these  strains  have 
merged. 

In  conformation  the  Suffolk  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
other  draft  breeds,  the  w^eight  varying  from  1600  to  2000  pounds, 
the  height  from  sixteen  hands  to  seventeen  hands.  However, 
the  body  is  characterized  by  good  depth.  Chestnut  and  bay  are 
the  characteristic  colors.  The  Suffolk  is  the  least  known  of  the 
draft  breeds  in  America. 

Breeds  of  ponies. — The  breeds  of  ponies  are  characterized  by 
their  small  size,  though  there  is  wide  variation  in  both  size  and 
conformation.  The  Shetland  pony,  a  native  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  is  the  smallest  and  in  some  respects,  the  most  important. 
In  form  this  pony  resembles  a  small  draft  horse.  The  weight 
varies  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  five  hundred  pounds  and 
the  height  from  thirty- two  to  forty-four  inches.  All  colors  are 
found,  but  black,  brown  and  spotted  are  most  common.  The 
Shetland  is  popular  in  America. 

The  Welsh  pony  is  a  native  of  Wales.  In  form  this  pony 
resembles  the  Thoroughbred,  but  is  much  smaller,  weighing  four 
hundred  to  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  and  ranging  in  height 
from  fort3"-eight  to  fifty-six  inches.  This  breed  is  of  active  tem- 
perament and  not  so  popular  in  America. 

Arabian  and  hackney  ponies  are  similar  to  the  Arabian  and 
hackney  breeds  already  described,  with  the  exception  of  the  size, 
the  weight  varying  from  six  hundred  to  eight  hundred  pounds 
and  the  height  under  fifty-six  inches. 

The  mule. — This  is  not  a  breed,  but  is  a  hybrid,  the  result  of  a 
cross  between  a  jack  and  a  mare.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
older  countries  of  the  earth  have  been  propagating  mules  for 
centuries,  it  seems  strange  that  it  should  be  left  for  the  United 
States  to  prove  this  animal's  economic  usefulness.  This  recog- 
nition of  the  mule 's  value  is  very  largely  due  to  the  intelligence 
of  our  southerners  who  were  the  first  to  adapt  it  to  general  pur- 
poses. 

Being  a  cross  between  a  jack  and  a  mare,  the  mule  differs  from 


THE  HOESE 


257 


both.  Compared  with  the  horse,  the  head  is  larger,  the  ears  are 
longer,  the  mane  and  tail  are  tufted,  the  body  is  smaller,  the  feet 
are  smaller  and  longer  with  a  greater  arch  of  hoof.  The  mule  is 
exceedingly  variable  in  size  and  weight,  depending  on  the  paren- 
tage. Likewise  the 
color  is  variable 
with  blacks  and 
browns  with  light 
points  the  m  ore 
populai".  The  mule, 
being  a  hybrid,  is 
sterile  and  will  not 
breed. 

As  is  often  the 
case  with  hybrids, 
the  mule  is  more 
resistant  than 
either  parent. 
Mules  live  longer 
than  horses  and 
their  period  of 
usefulness  is  often 
longer.  For  long 
journeys  through 
semi-  desert  re- 
gions, over  moun- 
tain precipices  and 
through  difficult 
passes,  the  mule  ir 
preferred  to  tln' 
horse.  He  is  un- 
affected by  the  cli- 
mate—  cold,  hot,  moist, 
the  mule.     He  is  found 


economic  work  animals. 


dry,  it  is  all  in  the  day's  work  with 
wherever  man  needs  a  beast  to  help 
bear  his  burdens,  with  the  pack,  under  the  saddle,  and  in  harness 
both  heavy  and  light.  His  docility,  his  cool-headedness,  his 
resistance  to  disease,  especially  those  resulting  from  over-feed- 
ing, make  him  a  very  desirable  animal  where  ignorant  and  care- 
less workmen  must  be  relied  upon. 


258     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

BREEDING  HORSES  ON  THE  FARM 

For  about  one-half  of  the  year  the  farmer  uses  his  horses 
constantly.  During  the  groA\dng  season  the  horses  are  some- 
times overworked,  whereas  for  the  remainder  of  the  year  the  cost 
of  maintaining  the  animals  often  exceeds  the  value  of  their  ser- 
vices. Such  is  likely  to  be  the  case  when  horses  are  kept  merely 
for  the  work  that  they  can  do.  There  are  many  successful  farm- 
ers, however,  who  maintain  sufficient  horses  to  do  the  work  of  the 
busy  season  without  overwork.  Mares  are  kept  by  such  farmers, 
and  in  order  to  make  them  earn  their  keep  during  the  idle  season 
they  are  bred,  thus  producing  a  colt  in  addition  to  the  work  that 
they  accomplish.  Thus,  instead  of  purchasing  a  team  every  few 
years,  these  farmers  derive  an  income  from  the  sale  of  surplus 
stock.  The  money  obtained  from  the  sale  of  horses  that  have 
been  raised  Avill  fully  compensate  for  the  maintenance  of  all 
horse  stock  during  the  idle  season. 

The  brood  mare. — In  the  selection  of  breeding  stock,  the  prin- 
ciple of  heredity  that  ''like  produces  like"  must  not  be  forgotten. 
This  principle  applies  to  the  brood  mare  as  well  as  to  the  stal- 
lion. Inferior  qualities  possessed  by  the  mare  are  as  likely  to 
appear  in  the  colt  as  are  inferior  qualities  possessed  by  the  stal- 
lion. The  influence  of  the  mare  in  the  transmission  of  qualities 
to  the  foal  is  often  much  underestimated,  and  frequently  is 
ignored  entirely  by  horse-breeders.  The  general  appearance 
and  the  pedigree  of  the  stallion  are  given  much  prominence, 
while  in  the  brood  mare  they  are  sometimes  entirely  lost  sight 
of.  The  farmer  who  keeps  worthless  mares  for  breeding  merely 
because  he  cannot  sell  them  will  not  be  able  to  compete  with  his 
neighbor  Avho  keeps  only  the  best  brood  mares,  even  though  they 
both  patronize  the  same  stallion. 

Selecting  the  stallion.— In  selecting  the  stallion,  there  are 
three  important  factors  to  be  considered:  first,  the  individual 
merit,  or  the  perfection  of  the  animal  as  a  representative  of  its 
type  or  breed ;  secondly,  the  pedigree,  or  the  purity  of  the  ances- 
try and  the  probable  capacity  of  the  individual  to  reproduce 
itself  or  to  show  improvement;  and  thirdly,  the  suitability  of 
the  two  individuals  to  be  mated. 

In  breeding  horses  the  perfection  of  the  animals  selected 
should  be  carefully  considered.  Occasionally  stallions  are 
selected  on  the  basis  of  their  pedigree.  Such  practice  may  prove 
disappointing,  for  many  inferior  individuals  are  recorded 
merely  because  such  animals  command  a  good  price  on  the  mar- 
ket,   in  choosing  breeding  horses  each  animal  should  be  closely 


THE  HORSE  259 

inspected,  and  only  superior  individuals  should  be  placed  in  tlie 
stud. 

Purity  of  ancestry  is  an  important  factor  in  choosing  the  stal- 
lion, for  the  capacity  of  a  horse  to  produce  superior  offspring 
will  depend  largely  on  his  ancestors.  Often  it  is  a  question  which 
factor  should  receive  a  larger  share  of  attention,  the  individual 
merit  or  the  pedigree.  Formerly  great  length  of  pedigree  Avas 
associated  Avitli  breeding  quality,  but  the  present  evidence  goes 
to  show  that  it  is  the  immediate  ancestors  that  are  of  most 
importance. 

In  breeding  horses  it  is  a  serious  but  common  error  to  sup- 
pose that  the  bad  points  in  one  animal  can  be  fully  offset  or 
overcome  by  the  good  points  in  the  mate.  The  popular  state- 
ment that  the  stallion  controls  outward  characters  and  the  mare 
internal  characters  of  the  offspring  has  led  many  breeders  to 
think  that  the  offspring  ^dll  resemble  the  paternal  parent  irre- 
spective of  the  mother.  Such  is  not  the  case.  Errors  in  confor- 
mation are  not  to  be  offset  by  choosing  a  mate  that  is  abnormally 
developed  in  the  corresponding  character.  The  foundation  prin- 
ciple of  successful  horse-breeding  is  to  mate  two  animals  both  of 
Avliich  are  as  nearly  ])erfect  as  possible. 

Season  of  the  year  in  which  to  breed. — Mares  breed  naturally 
in  early  spring.  At  this  season  their  breeding  condition  is  more 
readily  observed  and  they  more  frequently  conceive  than  at  any 
other  time  during  the  year.  The  spring  of  the  year  is  the  natural 
breeding  season;  but,  because  of  the  heavy  spring  work,  it  is 
necessary  on  many  farms  that  mares  be  bred  so  as  to  have  the 
colts  come  in  the  fall. 

Spring  foals. — When  convenient,  the  spring  is  the  desirable 
time  to  breed  the  mare.  This  season  has  many  advantages.  Not 
only  is  the  mare's  breeding  condition  more  readily  noted  and 
her  chances  of  conceiving  greater,  but  the  foal  comes  at  a  time 
when  it  is  much  more  easily  managed.  The  housing  is  simpli- 
fied ;  if  the  w^eather  is  warm,  the  mare  and  the  foal  may  be 
turned  into  a  small  paddock  or  a  pasture.  The  grass  that  she 
eats  will  serve  to  keep  her  in  good  physical  condition  and  to 
stimulate  the  flow  of  milk.  This  practice  gives  the  foal  the 
range  of  the  field,  so  that  it  may  take  the  much-needed  exercise 
without  which  no  foal  can  develop  endurance.  Soon  the  foal 
will  learn  to  nibble  the  grass,  and  this  will  prove  beneficial,  for 
grass  is  a  good  supplement  to  milk  for  a  suckling  colt. 

Aside  from  the  inconvenience  of  the  foal  while  the  dam  is 
being  worked,  the  chief  objection  to  a  spring  colt  is  that  it  must 


260  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

be  weaned  in  the  fall  just  about  the  time  of  going  on  dry  feed. 
At  this  time  the  colt  must  receive  extra  feed  and  attention,  or  it 
will  lose  flesh  and  its  future  development  and  usefulness  may  be 
retarded. 

Fall  foals. — On  grain  farms  the  heavy  work  begins  in  March 
and  continues  until  August ;  in  dairy  districts,  where  much  hay 
is  to  be  harvested  and  many  silos  are  to  be  filled,  it  may  last  until 
October.  When  fall  foals  are  to  be  raised  the  mares  should  be 
bred  so  as  to  foal  as  soon  as  convenient  after  the  season 's  work, 
provided  the  foals  do  not  come  when  flies  are  especially  annoy- 
ing. The  time  of  breeding  and  other  details  will  be  modified  by 
circumstances. 

While  the  mare  is  not  so  likely  to  breed  in  the  fall  as  in  the 
spring  —  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  her  thin  condition  after  the 
summer's  work  —  yet  by  increasing  the  food,  especially  the 
grain  ration,  by  blanketing,  and  by  moderate  and  regular  exer- 
cise, the  desired  results  can  often  be  attained.  The  bowels  should 
be  kept  free  from  constipation  by  feeding  moderate  amounts  of 
succulent  food.  Conditions  should  be  made  as  springlike  as  pos- 
sible. 

If  the  foal  comes  in  the  winter  it  will  need  extra  warm  quar- 
ters and  extra  attention.  The  dam  will  need  milk-producing 
foods,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay,  oats,  bran,  and  a  few  carrots 
if  they  are  available.  She  should  be  exercised  regularly.  If  the 
breeder  feeds  succulent  food,  such  as  carrots,  and  provides  suffi- 
cient exercise  for  mare  and  foal,  it  is  possible  to  raise  a  winter 
colt  that  will  be  a  strong  rival  to  the  average  spring  colt. 

Care  of  the  brood  mare. — The  pregnant  mare  should  receive 
such  a  ration  as  will  supply  her  demands  for  energy  and,  in  addi- 
tion, allow  ample  nourishment  for  the  development  of  the  foal, 
both  before  and  for  a  short  time  after  birth.  Her  work  should 
be  so  regulated  as  to  protect  her  from  becoming  tired,  over- 
heated, or  injured  in  any  way.  There  is  no  secret  in  raising 
colts  further  than  feeding  to  the  mother  a  moderate  amount  of 
nutritious  food  and  providing  sufficient  exercise  to  keep  mare 
and  foal  in  good  physical  condition. 

Worhhig  the  pregnant  mare. —  Moderate  work  is  not  only 
harmless,  but  positively  advantageous,  to  mares  in  foal,  pro- 
vided proper  care  is  taken  not  to  overload  them.  It  is  much  bet- 
ter to  work  them  than  to  keep  them  tied  in  the  stable  in  want  of 
exercise,  or  to  permit  them  to  run  at  large  in  fields  mth  other 
horses  where  they  are  exposed  to  accident  resulting  from  racing, 
playing,  or  fighting  with  each  other.    Pregnant  mares  are  nsu- 


THE  HORSE  261 

ally  quarrelsome,  and  abortions  frequently  occur  from  injuries 
received  at  the  heels  of  other  horses.  If  j^roper  care  be  taken, 
the  mare  can  safely  be  used  at  the  ordinary  work  of  the  farm  up 
to  the  very  day  of  foaling;  but  as  the  time  approaches  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  work  be  not  heavy  or  the  pace  rapid.  She  must 
not  be  fretted  by  the  other  horses  or  by  rough,  inexperienced 
hands. 

Feeding  the  pregnant  mare. — The  food  of  the  pregnant  mare 
is  most  important.  Fat  production  is  to  ])e  avoided,  and  the  for- 
mation of  blood,  muscle,  and  bone  should  be  induced.  Foods  rich 
in  protein  and  ash,  such  as  oats,  bran,  clover,  and  alfalfa,  are 
preferable  to  starchy  foods,  such  as  corn.  A  very  good  ration 
for  the  pregnant  mare  is  as  follows:  four  parts  ground  oats, 
four  parts  wheat  bran  or  its  equivalent,  and  one  part  linseed 
meal,  with  bright  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  for  roughage. 

Pregnant  animals  have  a  tendency  to  fatten  as  pregnancy  ad- 
vances. This  tendency  must  be  guarded  against  in  the  mare, 
since  superfluous  flesh  may  interfere  with  the  development  of 
the  foal,  cause  abortion,  or  induce  difficulties  at  parturition, 
such  as  milk  fever  and  garget.  The  ration  of  the  mare  should  be 
reduced  just  before  foaling  and  for  a  short  time  thereafter,  and 
should  be  made  laxative  by  the  addition  of  a  succulent  food,  sucli 
as  carrots,  or  an  occasional  bran  mash. 

The  mare  after  foaling. — If  all  is  normal  after  foaling,  the 
mare  will  usually  get  up  and  care  for  her  foal.  After  she  is  on 
her  feet  there  should  be  offered  her  a  drink  of  gruel,  made  from 
a  pound  of  fine  oatmeal  in  half  a  bucket  of  water  from  which  the 
chill  has  been  taken.  While  the  mare  should  be  lightly  worked 
up  to  the  day  of  foaling,  it  is  essential  that  she  have  a  few  days 
rest  after  foaling;  how  long  a  rest  she  should  have  A\dll  depend 
on  the  condition  of  the  mare  and  the  foal,  and  on  the  financial 
circumstances  of  the  breeder.  As  soon  as  the  mare  is  able,  how- 
ever, she  should  be  given  light  exercise,  since  exercise  is  essen- 
tial to  the  well-being  of  both  mare  and  foal. 

The  foods  given  the  brood  mare  when  nursing  her  foal  should 
be  such  as  have  a  tendency  to  produce  milk.  Timothy  hay  and 
corn  alone  are  not  good  milk-producing  foods.  The  ration  sug- 
gested above  for  the  pregnant  mare  is  better,  and  it  could  be 
much  improved  if  a  small  quantity  of  succulent  food,  such  as 
carrots,  were  fed  with  it.  Many  mares  at  best  are  poor  milk- 
producers  and  they  must  be  encouraged.  Plenty  of  good,  fresh 
grass  is  one  of  the  best  aids  to  healthy  and  abundant  nutrition 
for  both  mare  and  foal. 


262  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  breeder  sliould  keep  close  watcli  of  the  mare's  udder  and 
the  condition  of  the  colt's  bowels.  If  the  bowels  of  the  colt  are 
loose  and  he  is  scouring,  he  may  be  having  too  much  milk.  In 
that  case  the  mare  should  be  partly  milked  by  hand.  If  the  colt 
is  not  taking  all  the  milk,  it  is  necessary  for  the  breeder  to  milk 
the  mare.  Otherwise  the  udder  will  be  greatly  distended,  will 
become  sore,  and  may  possibly  cake,  w^hich  will  result  in  trouble 
for  both  mare  and  foal. 

The  young  foal. — The  young  foal  that  makes  its  appearance 
normally  and  is  bright  and  active  needs  only  to  be  let  alone.  If 
proper  attention  is  given  to  the  food  and  the  exercise  of  the  mare 
the  foal  should  thrive  without  special  care. 

The  foal's  first  meal. —  It  is  essential  that  the  new-born  foal 
receive  the  first  milk  from  the  dam.  This  foremilk  appears  thick 
and  yellow,  and  is  a  natural  purgative  for  the  removal  of  mate- 
rial that  has  accumulated  in  the  foal 's  digestive  tract  during  the 
last  few  days  of  its  develojiment.  The  prompt  removal  of  such 
material  is  essential  to  the  life  of  the  colt. 

If  the  foal  receives  its  first  meal  of  colostrum  Avithin  an  hour 
after  birth,  it  will  ordinarily  do  well.  Usually  the  bowels  move 
within  four  to  six  hours. 

Feeding  the  young  foal  hy  hand. —  It  often  happens  that  the 
milk  of  the  mare  is  insufficient  to  i^romote  healthy,  vigorous 
growth  in  the  foal,  and  occasionally  it  becomes  necessary  to  raise 
a  foal  independently  of  the  dam.  In  such  cases  the  best  addi- 
tion to,  or  the  best  substitute  for,  the  milk  of  the  mare  is  that  of 
the  cow.  The  milk  of  the  mare  contains  more  sugar  and  less 
fat  than  does  the  milk  of  the  cow.  The  breeder  should  there- 
fore obtain  milk  from  as  fresh  a  cow  as  possible ;  the  poorer  in 
fat  the  milk  is,  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  foal,  since  mare's 
milk  will  average  only  one  and  one-half  per  cent  fat  while  the 
milk  of  most  cows  contaiins  more  than  three  per  cent. 

Patient  effort  will  soon  teach  the  colt  to  drink  milk  readily, 
but  care  must  be  taken  that  it  does  not  receive  too  much  at  first. 
AVhen  necessary  to  feed  the  new-born  foal  cow's  milk,  the  milk 
should  be  modified.  Four  tablespoonfuls  of  limewater  should 
be  put  into  a  pint  jar,  which  should  then  be  filled  with  fresh 
cow's  milk.  A  dessertspoonful  of  white  granulated  sugar 
should  be  added  for  sweetening.  The  mixture  must  be  warmed 
to  blood  heat  and  the  foal  should  receive  half  a  teacupful  every 
hour  at  first.  As  the  colt  grows  older,  the  amount  of  food  should 
be  increased,  and  the  frequency  of  feeding  should  be  decreased 
first  to  twelve,  then  to  nine,  six,  and  lastly  four,  times  each  day. 


THE  HOKSE  263 

The  i)urpose  is  to  give  the  foal  all  that  it  will  drink,  and  to  feed 
so  often  that  it  will  not  require  a  large  quantity  at  a  time. 

Common  disorders  of  the  young  foal. —  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  new-born  foal  cannot  breathe.  In  such  a  case  measures 
must  be  taken  quickly  to  establish  the  function  of  respiration  by 
blowing  violently  up  the  nostrils  and  into  the  mouth,  and  by 
briskly  rubbing  the  body. 

Constipation. — The  young  foal  frequently  suffers  from  consti- 
pation of  the  bowels,  especially  if  the  mare  has  not  been  in  good 
health  during  the  latter  periods  of  pregnancy.  Sometimes  the 
first  milk  of  the  dam  Avill  not  agree  with  the  young  foal,  or 
through  weakness  the  foal  may  not  have  obtained  a  good  draft. 
AVhatever  the  cause,  if  the  digestive  tract  has  not  been  cleaned 
of  its  contents  within  twenty-four  hours  and  if  the  foal  presents 
a  listless  appearance,  with  eyes  dull  and  ears  drooping,  it  is 
necessary  to  stimulate  action  of  the  bowels.  Ordinarily  the 
bowels  will  be  stimulated  to  action  by  the  administering  of  two 
ounces  of  olive  oil  or  castor  oil,  and  by  an  injection  of  warm 
water  into  the  bowels.  The  water  should  be  at  blood  heat  and 
should  have  added  to  it  a  teaspoonful  of  glycerin  and  enough 
warm  water  to  make  four  or  five  ounces  • —  but  no  more,  for  only 
a  small  quantity  is  needed.  This  mixture  should  be  injected 
gently  into  the  rectum  with  an  ordinary  two-ounce,  hard-rubber 
syringe.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  rupture  the  tender  mem- 
brane. This  injection  will  lubricate  the  passage  and  induce  the 
foal  to  endeavor  to  pass  the  fecal  matter,  which  is  a  ^^ellowdsh, 
rather  hard,  waxy  substance.  If  given  as  directed,  the  injection 
can  do  no  harm  and  may  be  repeated  every  hour. 

Diarrhaa. — This  disease  is  rather  prevalent  among  suckling 
animals  and  is  often  fatal.  Although  less  subject  to  the  disease 
than  calves  are,  foals  often  die  from  it  within  a  short  period  of 
time  after  birth.  The  causes  are  not  certainly  known.  Ordi- 
narily it  is  attributed  to  changes  of  an  unknown  character  that 
take  place  in  the  composition  of  the  milk. 

Rich  foods  given  to  the  mare  may  stimulate  the  flow  of  milk 
to  such  an  extent  that,  if  the  foal  is  permitted  to  take  all,  digest- 
ive disorders  and  diarrhoea  Avill  follow.  In  early  spring  when 
the  mare  is  pasturing  on  a  rank  growth  of  succulent  grass,  a 
similar  condition  is  likely  to  result.  For  the  same  reason,  a  cold, 
damp  bed  or  exposure  to  cold  rainstorms  is  to  be  avoided.  While 
a  passing  shower,  even  if  cold,  may  do  no  harm,  prolonged  ex- 
posure to  rain  and  to  a  low  temperature  are  likely  to  prove  fatal 
to  a  new-born  foal.    Confinement  in  close  buildings  is  objection- 


264  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 

able  to  mare  and  foal  alike ;  in  both  it  induces  a  weakened  con- 
dition and  leaves  the  system  an  easy  prey  to  disease. 

The  best  practice  is  to  avoid  conditions  that  are  likely  to  cause 
such  disorders.  If  the  dam  is  properly  fed  and  exercised,  there 
is  little  danger.  On  the  other  hand,  should  digestive  disorders 
appear,  the  foal  must  receive  immediate  attention  and  the  cause 
must  be  removed;  even  then  relief  may  come  too  late.  When 
the  attack  is  due  to  an  over-supply  of  rich  milk,  the  dam  should 
be  milked  in  part  by  hand. 

In  administering  treatment  the  nature  of  the  difficulty  should 
not  be  ignored.  It  is  caused  by  an  irritant  in  the  stomach  or  the 
bowels  that  must  be  removed  before  a  cure  can  be  effected.  In 
all  such  cases  the  best  practice  is  to  expel  the  disturbance  with 
a  laxative,  such  as  two  ounces  of  castor  oil,  and  later,  after  the 
irritant  has  been  expelled,  to  check  the  discharge.  Even  this 
treatment  is  beset  by  many  a  difficulty. 

Navel  infection. — Another  disease  common  to  young  foals  is 
the  so-called  navel  infection,  or  joint  disease.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  this  disease  is  due  to  filth  germs  that  gain  access  to 
the  body  of  the  foal  by  way  of  the  open  umbilical  vein  of  the 
navel  at  birth.  AVhen  these  germs  enter  the  body  they  set  up 
irritation  and  inflammation;  pus  forms  and  is  absortjed  into 
the  circulation  from  the  navel  abscess,  and  other  abscesses  are 
formed  in  all  parts  of  the  body,  especially  in  the  joints  of  the 
limbs.  The  foal  is  seen  to  have  a  swollen  joint,  and  the  breeder 
is  likely  to  think  that  the  mare  caused  the  injury;  other  joints 
will  soon  be  affected,  however,  and  the  condition  may  affect  the 
throat  and  the  poll  as  well.  It  is  comparatively  rare  that  an 
infected  colt  can  be  saved  after  the  disease  has  reached  the 
pus-forming  stage. 

It  has  been  proved  that  simple  hygienic  measures  will  prevent 
the  disease.  The  stall  in  which  the  mare  foals  should  have  every 
bit  of  old  bedding,  litter,  and  dirt  removed,  and  the  young  foal 
should  be  born  only  on  clean,  fresh  bedding.  Perhaps  it  would 
be  a  safeguard  to  wash  the  stump  of  the  umbilical  cord  —  which 
should  never  be  cut,  but  should  be  allowed  to  break  of  its  own 
accord  —  with  a  saturated  solution  of  boracic  acid,  and  then  to 
dust  it  with  boracic-acid  powder. 

Feeding  the  foal. —  As  soon  as  the  foal  is  old  enough  it  should 
be  encouraged  to  nibble  at  grain,  preferably  oatmeal  or  wheat 
bran.  It  will  begin  to  munch  grain  and  hay  at  three  or  four 
weeks  of  age.  If  it  is  necessary  that  the  foal  have  milk  after 
it  is  two  months  old,  skimmed  milk  should  be  substituted  for 


THE  HORSE  265 

the  fresh  milk  of  a  cow.  A  colt  should  never  be  fed  sour  milk 
or  milk  from  unclean  vessels.  Should  there  be  any  trouble  from 
constiiDation,  it  will  be  well  to  add  about  one-half  pint  of  oil  meal 
to  the  ration  each  day.  Oil  meal  can  be  fed  wi«tli  profit  to  grow- 
ing colts,  since  it  furnishes  a  large  proportion  of  muscle-forming 
food.  The  effect  of  a  ration  consisting  of  sweet  skimmed  milk, 
ground  oats,  and  oil  meal  on  the  growth  and  development  of  a 
foal  is  remarkable,  and  in  all  cases  when  the  foal  is  likely  to 
enter  winter  in  low  flesh  such  a  ration  cannot  be  too  highly 
reconmiended. 

Most  breeders  advise  leaving  the  colt  in  the  stable  while  the 
mare  is  at  work;  others  allow  the  colt  to  follow  the  mare  into 
the  field.  Much  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  work  that  the  mare 
is  doing.  In  some  kinds  of  work  the  foals  may  follow  without 
risk  to  mare  or  colt,  while  in  other  kinds,  such  as  mowing  hay 
or  reaping  grain,  they  cannot  be  allowed  to  follow.  If  the  foal 
is  kept  in  the  barn,  the  mare  ma}^  worry  and  fret  and  perhaps 
heat  herself  badly  at  first,  but  in  time  she  will  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  separation. 

On  being  brought  in  from  work,  the  mare  should  be  given  a 
drink,  but  she  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink  too  much  if  she  is 
warm  or  if  the  water  is  very  cold.  After  she  has  cooled  off  and 
some  of  her  milk  has  been  drawn  by  hand,  she  may  be  turned 
into  the  stall  with  the  colt  with  perfect  safety  to  both. 

Weaning  the  foal. — Weaning  depends  rather  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  foal  for  leaving  the  dam  than  on  the  actual  removal. 
The  simplicity  of  the  weaning  process  depends  on  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  preparation.  If  the  foal  has  become  accustomed  to 
eating  grain,  if  it  has  been  permitted  to  take  increasingly  more 
as  it  grew,  the  process  of  weaning  should  not  be  difficult ;  for  as 
the  ration  increases  in  amount  of  grain,  it  will  decrease  in  the 
amount  of  milk  consumed.  AVhen  the  time  arrives  for  complete 
separation  there  will  be  little,  if  any,  inconvenience  or  disturb- 
ance to  either  foal  or  dam.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  foal  must 
learn  to  eat  after  having  been  deprived  of  its  accustomed  source 
of  supply,  it  ^^^ll  require  time  to  become  adjusted  to  the  new  con- 
dition, and  the  mare  will  demand  special  care  because  of  the 
removal  of  the  colt  before  her  milk  supply  has  been  gradually 
diminished. 


266  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

FEEDING  AND  CARE  OF  THE  HORSE 

The  efficiency  of  the  horse  and  the  comfort  with  which  he  per- 
forms his  labor  will  depend  largely  on  the  general  care  and 
management  that  he  receives.  In  some  lines  of  work,  neglect 
one  day  may  largely  be  made  up  the  next,  but  in  caring  for  the 
horse  this  is  not  jDOSsible.  Injury  resulting  from  neglect  is 
always  attended  with  loss  that  cannot  be  atoned  for,  even  by 
special  care  given  subsequently. 

The  work  horse  should  have  rich  food ;  the  richer  the  food,  the 
more  easily  it  is  digested  and  the  greater  is  the  proportion  that 
becomes  available  in  energy.  He  should  be  fed  liberally  and  fre- 
quently. He  has  a  good  appetite  and  a  vigorous  digestion,  and 
responds  to  intelligent  care.  Regularity  in  feeding,  watering, 
and  working  brings  comfort  to  the  horse  and  results  in  long 
years  of  usefulness;  while  irregularity  in  these  essentials  is 
likely  to  lead  to  digestive  disorders  and  other  derangements. 

Amount  of  food  needed. —  Many  experiments  have  been  con- 
ducted in  order  to  determine  the  relation  between  the  amount 
of  muscular  work  to  be  done  and  the  amount  of  food  required 
for  its  performance.  As  a  result  of  such  experiments,  feeding 
standards  have  been  established  which  serve  to  show  the  amount 
of  food  required  each  day  by  a  working  horse. 

This  feeding  standard  should  be  modified  according  to  the 
size  of  the  horse  as  well  as  the  amount  and  the  kind  of  work  that 
he  is  required  to  perform.  In  practice  the  work  horse  is  sup- 
plied with  approximately  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  provender 
daily  for  each  one  hundred  pounds  weight.  Of  this  amount,  one- 
third  to  two-thirds  —  the  exact  amount  depending  on  the  severity 
of  the  labor  —  should  be  grain,  and  the  remainder  should  be 
sweet,  clean  hay.  When  work  is  heavy  the  grain  in  the  ration 
should  be  increased  and  the  hay  diminished,  since  grain  fur- 
nishes more  energy  and  is  more  easily  digested.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  work  is  light,  the  grain  should  be  diminished  and 
the  hay  increased. 

While  the  amount  of  food  to  be  given  a  large  number  of  horses 
can  be  estimated  closely,  yet  the  rations  should  be  modified  so 
as  to  meet  the  needs  of  each  animal.  One  horse  may  need  a  little 
more  than  the  regular  allowance  and  the  second  horse  a  little 
less,  since  some  horses  are  kept  in  condition  less  easily  than 
others  doing  the  same  amount  of  work  under  similar  circum- 
stances. 

Order  of  watering  and  feeding. —  Because  of  the  small  size 
of  the  horse's  stomach,  the  order  of  supplying  grain,  hay,  and 


THE  HORSE  267 

water  is  of  much  importance.  Investigators  have  shown  that 
the  stomach  of  the  horse  must  be  filled  and  emptied  two  or  three 
times  for  each  meal  given.  It  appears  that  during  the  earl}'^ 
stage  of  the  meal  the  partially  digested  food  is  pushed  into  the 
intestines  by  the  food  that  follows  soon  after  it  enters  the 
stomach;  toward  the  end  of  the  meal  the  passage  is  slow  and 
the  digestion  in  the  stomach  is  more  nearly  perfect.  This  being 
true,  it  would  seem  that  the  more  nutritious  food  should  be  fed 
toward  the  end  of  the  meal,  especially  since  the  important 
nutrients  are  largely  digested  in  the  stomach. 

The  order  in  which  food  should  be  given  cannot  he  discussed 
intelligently  without  considering  the  time  of  watering  the  horse. 
Many  feeders  believe  that  the  horse  should  be  watered  before 
feeding,  while  others  are  equally  certain  that  feeding  should  pre- 
cede watering.  The  object  sought  is  that  the  horse  shall  be  fed 
and  watered  so  frequently  that  he  will  feel  neither  hunger  or 
thirst  at  any  time.  He  should  therefore  be  fed  at  least  three 
times,  and  watered  not  less  than  four  times  —  if  convenient,  six 
times  —  each  day.  He  should  be  watered  in  the  morning  before 
feeding,  and  for  the  morning  meal  should  receive  approximately 
one-fourth  of  the  daily  allowance  at  least  one  hour  before  going 
to  work.  This  food  should  be  in  a  condition  to  be  easily  and 
rapidly  consumed,  so  that  it  will  be  well  digested  when  the  ani- 
mal goes  to  work.  As  he  goes  to  work  he  should  be  watered,  and 
after  five  hours  of  exhausting  labor  he  should  be  given  his  mid- 
day meal,  a  second  quarter  of  the  daily  allowance.  Before  being 
fed  he  should  again  have  a  drink  of  fresh,  cool  water,  but  care 
should  be  taken  that  he  does  not  drink  too  rapidly  nor  gorge 
himself  if  he  is  very  warm.  If  convenient  the  harness  should 
be  removed,  so  that  the  horse  can  eat  in  comfort  and  have  a  few 
minutes  of  much-needed  rest.  One  hour  should  be  allowed  the 
horse  in  which  to  consume  the  midday  meal.  After  watering  and 
feeding  he  is  ready  for  the  second  half  of  his  day's  work.  AMien 
he  has  worked  for  five  hours  he  should  be  given  the  evening 
meal.  As  he  comes  to  the  stable  in  the  evening  he  should  first 
of  all  be  given  a  drink ;  care  must  be  exercised  as  before  to  see 
that  he  does  not  drink  too  rapidly.  He  is  now  ready  for  the 
remainder  of  his  daily  allowance.  Thus  heaw  feeding  comes  at 
night,  when  the  horse  has  ample  time  to  masticate  and  digest  his 
food  and  is  not  obliged  to  go  to  work  immediately. 

Feeds  for  the  work  horse. — The  ration  for  horses  usually  lacks 
variety.  If  rations  of  horses  in  a  given  locality  are  studied,  they 
are  found  to  be  composed  of  one  kind,  or  at  most  two  kinds,  of 


268  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

grain  and  one  forage.  The  owner  insists  that  this  is  the  most 
practical  and  economical  ration  that  he  can  feed  with  safety  to 
his  horses.  In  a  second  locality,  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
first,  the  list  of  food  materials  is  found  to  be  changing,  and  in 
some  cases  entirely  changed,  yet  with  the  same  claim  of  superi- 
ority or  necessity  as  before.  Such  study  convinces  us  that  the 
range  of  suitable  foods  is  very  wide. 

Grams  and  concentrates. —  Most  of  the  grains  fed  to  the  horse 
belong  to  the  cereal  group  —  oats,  corn,  barley,  rye,  and  wheat. 
These  grains  are  similar  in  composition.  They  contain  a  fairly 
low  water  and  protein  content  and  a  considerable  amount  of 
nitrogen-free  extract,  fiber,  and  fat.  They  are  palatable  and 
digestible.  The  choice  of  cereal  grains  for  feeding  the  horse  is 
largely  to  be  determined  by  relative  cost. 

Oats. —  No  other  grain  is  so  safe  for  horse-feeding  as  old  oats, 
and  the  animal  is  rarely  harmed  if  by  accident  the  feeder  gives 
an  over-supply.  The  safety  is  due  to  the  oat  hull,  which  causes 
a  given  weight  of  grain  to  possess  considerable  volmne.  It  is 
said  that  horses  fed  on  oats  show  a  spirit  that  cannot  be  attained 
by  the  use  of  any  other  feeding-stuff.  Many  urge  that  this  is 
due  to  a  peculiar  stimulating  substance,  called  avenin,  which  the 
oat  is  said  to  possess.  Oats  may  have  a  flavor  that  makes  them 
a  favorite  food ;  the  most  careful  study,  however,  has  failed  to 
reveal  any  substance  of  the  nature  of  avenin.  Notwithstanding 
this,  oats  have  many  advantages  as  a  food  for  horses. 

Corn. —  Next  to  oats,  corn  is  the  common  grain  for  horses  in 
America.  It  is  used  largely  in  the  Corn  Belt  and  to  the  south- 
ward. While  much  has  been  said  against  the  use  of  corn,  ordi- 
narily it  is  the  cheapest  of  all  the  cereal  grains.  A  given  quan- 
tity furnishes  more  energy  than  does  the  same  quantity  of  any 
other  food.  It  furnishes  the  largest  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  at  the  least  cost,  and  is  universally  palatable.  Although 
corn  is  not  equal  to  oats  as  a  grain  for  horses,  nevertheless,  be- 
cause of  its  low  cost  and  its  high  feeding  value,  this  grain  will  be 
used  extensively  where  a  large  number  of  horses  must  be  eco- 
nomically maintained. 

Corn  and  oats. —  Corn  and  oats,  mixed  half  and  half  accord- 
ing to  weight,  make  a  very  good  grain  ration  for  horses  and  are 
much  cheaper  than  oats  alone.  In  a  three-years  test  with  geld- 
ings and  brood  mares  worked  on  farms  and  at  heavy  draft,  this 
mixture  gave  equally  as  good  results  as  whole  oats  and  reduced 
the  cost  of  the  ration  approximately  ten  per  cent.  The  bulk  of 
oats  overcomes,  in  large  measure,  the  objectionable  features  of 


THE  HORSE  269 

corn ;  while  corn,  with  its  large  amount  of  easily  digested  mate- 
rials, furnishes  the  ration  with  the  elements  that  supply  energy. 

Barley,  rye  and  wheat. —  Each  of  these  grains  is  sometimes 
fed  to  the  horse.  The  question  of  their  use  depends  largely 
upon  their  market  price.  Usually  they  are  worth  more  for  other 
purposes.  "Wheat  especially  is  worth  more  for  milling.  "VMieat 
has,  however,  been  fed  to  the  horse  with  varying  success,  de- 
pending largely  on  the  feeder  and  the  method  of  feeding  it. 

Bran. —  Because  of  its  physical  effect,  bran  is  considered  a 
very  valuable  addition  to  the  ration  of  the  horse.  It  has  a  loosen- 
ing effect  on  the  bowels  and  a  tendency  to  allay  feverish  con- 
dition. It  is  entirely  too  bulky  to  constitute  any  considerable 
part  of  the  ration  of  a  hard-working  animal.  It  is  a  very  good 
food  for  young  and  growing  animals  as  it  is  rich  in  mineral 
matter  and  protein,  elements  that  the  young  animal  must  have 
to  build  up  his  bod}^  It  serves  the  needs  of  the  grown  horse  best 
when  given  as  a  "condition"  food. 

Linseed  meal. — This  food  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  is  often 
fed  to  the  horse  in  limited  quantities,  more  for  the  specific  effect 
it  has  on  the  horse  than  for  the  actual  nutrients  it  contains.  It 
stimulates  the  skin  secretions  and  gives  the  horse  a  very 
smooth  and  glossy  hair.  It  can  be  used  as  a  laxative.  Linseed 
meal  is  very  palatable  and  easily  digestible.  It  is  fattening  in 
its  nature  and  hence  desirable  if  one  mshes  to  fatten  his  horse. 
Linseed  is  valuable  as  a  food  for  the  growing  colt  because  of  its 
high  amount  of  mineral  matter  and  protein.  It  cannot  be  fed, 
however,  in  very  large  quantities  because  of  its  laxative  effect, 
and  some  horses  cannot  eat  it  at  all  as  it  scours  them  at  once. 

Molasses. —  Numerous  trials  have  been  made  of  feeding 
molasses  to  horses,  particularly  in  the  South.  It  is  rich  in 
nitrogen-free  extract  and  hence  is  quite  digestible.  In  the  South, 
where  it  is  fed  extensively,  it  is  fed  from  a  large  trough  and  the 
animals  are  allowed  to  eat  at  will.  In  the  North  it  is  customary 
to  dilute  it  with  water  and  sprinkle  on  the  hay.  Molasses  has  a 
good  physical  effect  upon  the  animal.  It  encourages  skin  secre- 
tion and  keeps  the  hair  fine  and  glossy.  There  are  some  disad- 
vantages connected  with  the  use  of  molasses,  however,  as  it 
attracts  insects,  especially  flies  and  ants,  sticks  to  the  animal's 
coat,  halter,  tie  strap  and  manger,  and  is  difficult  to  mix  with 
other  foods. 

Patent  stock  foods. —  If  the  horse  is  slightly  out  of  order,  or 
if  the  food  is  not  as  good  as  it  should  be,  the  use  of  condimental 
or  patent  stock  foods  may  be  of  advantage  in  bringing  the  ani- 


270  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

mal  up  to  the  normal  condition.  The  price  at  which  these  patent 
foods  are  sold  makes  them  extremely  expensive  to  the  consumer, 
and  the  profits  that  accrue  from  their  sale  are  great.  Yet  if  one 
has  a  horse  that  is  out  of  condition  it  may  be  profitable  to  buy  a 
package  of  this  food. 

Hay  and  forage. — The  kinds  of  forage  or  hay  that  are  avail- 
able for  horse-feeding  are  as  numerous  as  the  grains,  and  vary 
about  as  widely  in  their  composition.  Forage  on  the  average 
contains  only  about  one-half  of  the  energy  value  of  grain.  It 
differs  from  grain  in  that  it  contains  more  water  and  more  crude 
fiber. 

Timothy  hay. — Although  not  particularly  rich  in  digestible 
nutrients  timothy  is  the  standard  hay  for  horse-feeding.  There 
are  many  reasons  for  its  popularity :  It  can  be  grown  success- 
fully in  nearly  all  localities  and  is  the  principal  market  hay; 
it  is  difficult  to  adulterate  mth  other  grasses  or  weeds  without 
detection;  it  is  relished  by  horses;  it  is  free  from  dust,  all  of 
which  conditions  commend  good  timothy  hay  as  a  horse  food. 

Clover. — This  hay  has  not  been  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  for- 
age for  horses.  The  reasons  are  obvious.  It  is  generally  loaded 
with  dust,  and  this  is  often  hard  to  prevent.  This  can  be  over- 
come in  large  measure  by  moistening  the  hay  before  feeding. 
When  bright  and  clean  it  is  a  very  valuable  food  for  the  horse, 
especially  for  the  young  and  growing  colt,  as  it  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter ;  in  fact,  it  makes  a  better  ration  than 
timothy  when  fed  in  limited  quantities. 

Alfalfa  hay. — This  hay  belongs  to  the  same  natural  family  as 
clover  hay  and  meets  with  similar  objections.  It  is  likely  to  be 
dusty,  especially  when  grown  in  regions  of  considerable  rainfall. 
It  seems  certain  that  alfalfa  fed  in  limited  quantities  will  prove 
as  efficient  as  timothy  to  the  slow-going  draft  horse.  Horses  are 
very  fond  of  alfalfa,  and  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  feeding 
an  over-supply.  Like  clover,  there  is  no  better  forage  for  the 
young  and  growing  colt. 

Corn  stalks. —  Dry  corn  stalks  that  have  been  cured  in  the 
shock  are  sometimes  fed  as  a  substitute  for  hay.  Experiments 
and  experience  have  shown  that  in  the  fall  before  the  leaves  are 
leached  it  is  as  valuable  as  timothy  hay,  pound  for  pound  con- 
sumed. The  stalks  cost  only  one-third  as  much  as  the  timothy 
and  therefore  they  prove  much  more  economical. 

Straw. — The  straw  of  the  various  cereal  grains  is  sometimes 
fed  to  the  horse  as  part  of  his  roughage.  "WHiile  the  straw  has 
some  value,  the  horse  requires  much  more  grain  when  hay  is 


THE  HORSE  271 

replaced  b^'  straw.  Idle  work  horses  in  winter  can  utilize  some 
straw,  but  tliey  should  not  be  compelled  to  subsist  wholly  on  it 
as  it  contains  much  fibrous  material  and  is  largely  indigestible. 
It  should  never  be  fed  to  hard-working  animals.  In  relative 
value  for  horse-feeding,  the  straws  rank  in  the  following  order : 
Oats,  barley,  wheat  and  rye,  the  latter  being  of  little  use  as  a 
horse  food. 

Silage. — This  succulent  food  has  been  fed  to  the  horse  from 
time  to  time  with  varying  success.  If  the  silage  is  good  and  is 
fed  in  moderate  quantities,  it  may  be  given  to  idle  horses,  to 
idle  brood  mares  and  to  gromng  colts  with  safety.  It  should 
not  be  fed  to  the  hard-working  animal,  as  he  must  consume  too 
much  to  get  sufficient  nutrients  to  avail  him  much  energy  because 
of  the  high  percentage  of  water. 

Roots  and  tiihers. —  Carrots,  rutabagas,  potatoes  and  other 
roots  and  tubers  are  occasionally  fed  to  the  horse.  These  foods 
contain  a  high  percentage  of  water  and  small  amounts  of 
nutrients.  The  use  of  such  materials  for  horses  has  been 
attempted  at  different  times  with  varying  successes,  but  they 
are  not  used  to  any  great  extent  in  this  country,  although  quite 
common  in  Europe.  Carrots  are  often  fed  as  ''conditioners." 
For  that  purpose  their  value  is  high,  but  for  actual  nutrition  it 
is  very  low. 

Cost  of  the  ration. — In  formulating  the  ration  for  the  work 
horse  due  consideration  should  be  given  the  cost,  which  will  vary 
with  the  size  of  the  animal  and  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed as  well  as  with  the  cost  of  feed.  Hays  are  ordinarily 
much  cheaper  than  grains,  especially  on  farms.  The  hard-work- 
ing horse,  however,  is  unable  to  dispose  economically  of  a  large 
proportion  of  bulky  food,  since  time  and  energy  are  required 
for  mastication  and  digestion  of  rough  food. 

In  the  choice  of  grains,  their  cost  is  given  little  or  no  con- 
sideration by  the  average  person.  Thus  oats  are  fed,  although 
they  constitute  the  most  expensive  grain  on  the  market  and 
equally  good  results  would  be  obtained  by  feeding  some  cheaper 
grain,  in  part  at  least. 

Every  feeder  should  make  a  careful  study  of  the  foods  avail- 
able and  choose  those  that  best  meet  the  conditions. 

Feeding  the  idle  horse. — On  the  farm,  most  of  the  work  comes 
during  the  growing  s(^ason.  It  is  more  economical  and  is  per- 
haps advisable  that  the  idle  horse  be  turned  into  a  lot  —  if  the 
lot  is  well  protected  —  and  roughed  through  the  winter,  rather 
than  confined  too  closeh^  in  a  barn.     As  winter  comes  on,  the 


272  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

horse  will  grow  a  heavy  coat  of  hair,  which  will  afford  excellent 
protection.  Such  horses  may  be  maintained  largely  on  hay, 
straw,  or  corn  fodder,  fed  uncut,  since  they  have  time  to  masti- 
cate their  food  and  are  able  to  subsist  on  food  containing  a  large 
percentge  of  crude  fiber.  However,  if  straw  or  corn  fodder  is 
used,  some  grain  should  be  fed  in  addition,  say  four  to  six 
pounds  a  day.  It  is  considered  better  to  have  the  digestive  sys- 
tem of  the  idle  horse  moderately  distended  mth  coarse  mate- 
rial than  to  have  the  system  contracted,  as  would  be  the  case  if 
grains  composed  of  only  the  requisite  nutrients  were  supplied. 
If  the  protected  area  in  the  field  is  kept  dry  and  well  bedded, 
the  horse  can  be  comfortably  mntered  in  this  way  at  much  less 
expense  than  by  stabling.  In  order  to  put  the  horse  in  condi- 
tion, light  work  and  feeding  with  grain  should  begin  six  weeks 
before  the  spring  work  starts. 

Salting  the  horse. —  Salt  in  limited  quantities  should  be  kept 
before  the  horse  at  all  times.  It  is  not  good  practice  to  place 
too  much  salt  before  him  at  one  time,  for  some  horses  will  eat 
to  excess.  Abnormal  thirst  is  likely  to  follow  too  plentiful  salt- 
ing, and  if  sufficient  water  is  given  to  relieve  the  thirst  digestive 
disorders  may  result.  Salt  should  not  be  placed  in  the  food, 
since  this  practice  often  causes  derangement  of  the  digestive 
organs. 

Grooming. —  The  grooming  of  the  horse  deserves  careful 
consideration.  Nothing  else  contributes  so  largely  as  efficient 
grooming  to  the  beauty  and  luster  of  his  coat.  Because  of  this, 
the  body  usually  receives  sufficient  attention  but  the  legs  receive 
entirely  too  little.  If  the  animal's  legs  are  muddy  when  he 
arrives  at  the  stable,  they  should  be  roughly  cleaned  with  a 
half-worn,  coimnon  broom;  the  animal  should  be  placed  in  the 
stall,  fed,  unharnessed,  groomed  thoroughly,  and  blanketed.  The 
legs  should  then  be  given  a  thorough,  rapid  brushing.  Time 
spent  in  cleaning  and  rubbing  the  horse  in  the  evening,  after 
the  day's  work  is  done,  is  of  much  greater  benefit  to  the  animal 
than  the  same  amount  of  time  thus  spent  in  the  morning. 

If  the  animal  is  working  in  mud  it  is  desirable  that  the  hair 
be  clipped  from  his  legs ;  if  this  is  done,  the  legs  may  be  kept 
clean  mth  much  less  difficulty  than  if  the  hair  is  not  clipped. 
In  case  the  legs  are  clipped,  it  is  all  the  more  important  that 
they  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  rubbed  each  evening 
after  work.  The  hoofs  should  be  examined  and  the  cleft  between 
the  sole  and  the  frog  should  be  cleaned.  Animals  cared  for  in 
this  manner  will  pay  for  the  extra  care  many  times  over  by 


THE  HOESE  273 

coming  from  the  stable  in  the  morning  in  the  best  of  spirit. 
This  will  be  indicated  by  their  pleasing  appearance,  the  snap 
and  vigor  with  which  they  lift  their  feet,  and  the  complete 
absence  of  stiffness  in  their  joints.  Animals  whose  limbs  are 
thus  cared  for  will  remain  comparatively  free  from  the  many 
diseases  to  Avhich  the  legs  and  the  feet  are  subject.  Such  care 
will  greatly  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  horse  and  will  prolong 
his  usefulness. 

Clipping. —  This  consists  of  cutting  the  hair  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  body  of  the  horse.  Several  advantages  are 
claimed  for  clipping:  it  improves  the  appearance  of  the  horse 
and  enables  his  coat  to  be  more  easily  cleaned;  a  clipped  horse 
is  less  likely  to  take  cold  than  a  long-haired  horse  because  the 
evaporation  of  moisture  is  more  rai^id  and  the  horse  does  not 
become  so  warm ;  the  natural  process  of  shedding  hair  is  a  draft 
on  the  vitality  of  the  animal,  leading  to  a  diminished  appetite 
and  to  loss  of  flesh.  Clipping  accomplishes  in  a  short  time  what 
nature  requires  much  more  time  to  do.  From  this  it  would 
seem  that  horses  having  long,  thick  coats  should  be  clipped. 

If  horses  are  to  be  clipped  twice  each  year  the  first  clipping 
should  be  done  soon  after  the  hair  has  gro^m  out  in  the  fall; 
thus  the  horses  become  used  to  the  change  before  cold  weather 
and  obtain  some  growth  of  hair  before  winter  sets  in.  The 
second  cli]oping  should  be  done  in  early  spring  as  soon  as  the 
weather  begins  to  grow  warm  and  before  the  animals  begin  to 
shed  their  winter  coats.  Horses  thus  treated  will  be  much  more 
easily  kept  in  presentable  condition  and,  if  protected  by  blankets 
and  properly  groomed,  A\nll  pay  many  times  over  for  such  extra 
care.  "\\Tien  horses  cannot  be  protected  from  cold  and  wet, 
either  in  the  stable  or  outside  of  it,  they  should  not  be  clipped 
in  the  fall.  Animals  exposed  to  the  weather  grow  a  long  coat 
for  their  o\vn  protection  and  this  should  not  be  removed;  if, 
however,  the  owner  means  to  give  them  extra  care  and  attention, 
they  may  be  clipped. 

Blanketing. — In  our  climate  the  use  of  a  blanket  is  indispens- 
able. A  horse  will  be  more  efficient  and  will  endure  much  longer 
if  reasonably  protected  against  cold  rains,  heaA'y  winds,  and 
sudden  changes  in  temperature.  If  the  horse  is  warm  and  sweat- 
ing on  his  arrival  at  the  stable  he  should  not  be  blanketed  until 
he  has  ceased  to  steam,  nor  should  he  be  left  in  a  draft.  If  blank- 
eted at  once  there  is  little  opportunity  for  the  horse  to  dry,  the 
blanket  becomes  damp,  and  the  hair  of  the  horse  remains  moist 
all  night.    In  case  the  blanket  is  not  used  until  the  animal  has 


274  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

ceased  to  steam  and  is  somewhat  cool  —  whicli  will  be  in  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  —  the  hair  will  be  dry  and  smooth  on  the  f oIIoav- 
ing  morning. 

Some  caretakers  of  horses  use  two  stable  blankets.  One  is 
placed  on  the  animal  immediately  after  he  arrives  in  the  stable ; 
this  is  removed  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  being  replaced  by 
another  that  is  to  remain  on  the  animal  during  the  night.  This 
is  perhaps  advisable  in  very  cold  climates,  since  the  animal  may 
cool  off  too  quickly  if  not  given  some  protection  on  arriving  at 
the  stable. 

The  stable  blankets  may  be  dispensed  with  in  hot  summer 
months  if  flies  are  excluded  by  screens  or  some  other  means.  If 
blankets  are  used  at  this  time  they  should  be  of  light  material 
and  should  be  kept  clean.  As  soon  as  the  nights  begin  to  be 
cool  the  use  of  blankets  should  be  resumed ;  early  use  will  mark- 
edly arrest  the  growth  of  hair  and  occasionally  will  obviate  the 
necessity  of  clipping. 

The  use  of  the  outdoor  blanket  is  as  important  as  that  of  the 
stable  blanket.  If  the  horse  is  allowed  to  stand  outdoors  for 
either  a  short  or  a  long  time  he  should  be  well  blanketed.  In 
very  cold  weather  the  blanket  should  be  secured  about  the 
abdomen  by  blanket  pins. 

The  proper  use  of  fly  blankets  or  fly  nets  brings  much  com- 
fort to  the  horse.  Whether  it  is  better  to  use  nets  or  blankets 
Avill  depend  on  circumstances.  The  blanket,  being  warmer  and 
less  presentable,  is  not  advised  by  many  persons;  there  are 
conditions,  hoAvever,  under  which  it  appears  very  desirable,  par- 
ticularly on  horses  whose  color  fades  on  being  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Nets  are  more  presentable  and  there- 
fore are  more  approved  by  horsemen  generally.  Both  nets  and 
blankets  are  annoying  to  the  driver,  warm  for  the  animal,  and 
more  or  less  expensive.  For  these  reasons  they  are  often  dis- 
carded entirely,  although  their  judicious  use  is  often  of  advan- 
tage to  horses. 

Bedding. — Bedding  should  always  be  used  liberally.  A  horse 
at  hard  work  needs  rest  at  night,  and  much  more  rest  is  to  be 
obtained  if  the  horse  is  given  a  good  bed.  The  bedding  should 
not  be  permitted  to  become  foul ;  foul  bedding  not  only  will  lessen 
the  comfort  of  the  animal,  but  also  will  promote  disease.  Of 
bedding  materials,  straAV  proves  the  most  satisfactory;  when 
high  in  price  it  may  be  replaced  by  other  materials,  such  as 
shavings  from  the  planing  mill,  rejected  pieces  of  cornstalks, 
tanbark,  or  leaves.    Old  straw  is  preferable  to  new,  being  drier 


TPIE  HORSE  275 

and  more  elastic.  The  more  broken  and  bruised  the  straw  is, 
the  less  bulk  and  elasticity  it  has;  hence  a  greater  ciuantity  is 
needed. 

Care  of  the  teeth. — Occasionally  a  horse  is  found  that  does 
not  feed  well  owing  to  irregular  growth  of  his  teeth.  If  the 
first,  or  milk,  teeth  are  not  looked  after,  they  are  likely  to  remain, 
causing  the  second,  or  permanent,  teeth  to  grow  in  crooked.  The 
mouth  of  a  young  horse  should  be  watched  closely  and  the  per- 
sistent milk  teeth  should  be  removed  ^^ath  forceps.  It  must  be 
remembered  also  that  the  upper  jaw  is  somewhat  wider  than 
the  lower,  and,  from  the  fact  that  the  teeth  are  not  exactly  oppo- 
site, a  sharp  edge  is  left  unworn  on  the  inside  of  the  lower 
molars  and  on  the  outside  of  the  upper,  which  may  cut  the  tongue 
and  the  cheeks.  If  this  condition  exists  the  edge  can  readily  bo 
felt  by  the  hand,  and  such  sharp  edges,  when  found,  should  be 
rasped  down  by  a  guarded  rasp;  otherwise  the  tongue  and  the 
cheeks  become  sore  food  irritates  them,  and  the  horse  will  not 
feed  well. 

When  a  horse  quids  his  food,  when  he  drivels,  or  when  he 
evinces  pain  in  mastication  as  shown  by  holding  the  head  to  one 
side  while  che\\dng,  the  teeth  should  be  carefully  examined.  In 
addition  to  not  feeding  well,  a  horse  whose  teeth  have  unduly 
shari^  edges  is  likely  to  drive  badly,  to  pull  to  one  side,  not  to 
bear  on  the  bit  or  to  bear  on  too  hard,  to  toss  the  head,  and  to 
start  suddenly  Avhen  a  tender  spot  is  touched. 

Care  of  the  feet. — Because  of  the  great  importance  of  the  feet 
they  should  be  carefully  watched  throughout  the  active  career 
of  the  horse.  Each  evening  after  returning  from  work,  as  well 
as  in  the  morning  before  being  sent  out,  the  sole  of  the  foot 
should  be  examined  and  all  foreign  materials  should  be  removed. 
For  this  purpose  a  small  hay  hook,  with  the  point  sharpened,  is 
excellent.  Frequently  foreign  bodies,  such  as  nails  or  stones, 
either  are  driven  into  the  sole  of  the  foot  or  collect  in  the  cleft 
along  the  frog,  and  it  is  very  essential  that  these  be  removed  if 
the  hoof  is  to  remain  in  a  healthy  condition.  Occasionally  a 
hoof  has  a  tendency  to  dry  out  and  thus  become  hard  and  brittle. 
Such  a  hoof  should  be  oiled  with  good  oil  or  hoof  ointment.  This 
will  soften  the  sole  and  make  it  less  likely  to  crack  or  break. 
Again,  it  often  happens  that  a  piece  is  worn  or  broken  from  the 
side  of  the  hoof;  this  throws  the  weight  of  the  body  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  bring  a  strain  on  the  joints,  which  may  cause 
deformity.  A^^len  such  breaks  occur  the  hoof  should  be  leveled 
mth  a  rasp.    AMien  horses  are  too  closely  confined  in  the  stable 


276  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 

the  hoof  grows  out  long  and,  if  not  trimmed,  will  often  deform 
the  limb  and  make  traveling  difficult.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  such  a  foot  receive  proper  attention. 

The  rate  of  growth  of  the  hoof  is  of  much  importance,  for  it 
enables  the  owner  to  know  hoAV  long  it  will  take  a  crack  —  such 
as  a  quarter  crack,  side  crack,  toe  crack,  cleft,  or  calk  —  to  dis- 
appear. AMien  the  rate  of  growth  of  the  hoof  is  known  approxi- 
mately, the  length  of  time  required  for  such  an  injury  to  grow 
out  is  easily  estimated.  On  the  average,  the  hoof  grows  a  third 
of  an  inch  in  a  month.  Hind  hoofs  grow  faster  than  front  hoofs, 
and  unshod  hoofs  grow  faster  than  those  that  are  shod.  AVhile 
influenced  to  some  extent  by  work,  exercise,  climate,  moisture, 
and  food,  the  time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coro- 
net to  the  ground  varies  in  proportion  to  the  distance  of  the 
coronet  from  the  ground.  The  toe,  therefore,  grows  down  in 
ten  to  thirteen  months  (depending  on  its  height),  the  side  in 
six  to  eight  months,  and  the  heel  in  three  to  five  months. 

Adjustment  of  the  harness. —  Since  the  horse  receives  com- 
mands and  accomplishes  his  work  by  means  of  the  harness,  a 
perfectly  adjusted  harness  adds  much  to  his  comfort  and  in- 
creases his  usefulness.  Unequal  pressure  due  to  poorly  fitting 
harness  is  likely  to  abrade  the  flesh  and  leave  an  impression  with 
the  horse  that  he  is  being  punished,  which  may  cause  him  to 
develop  vicious  habits.  This  is  illustrated  b}^  the  fact  that  a 
sore  mouth  produced  by  a  poorly  fitted  bridle  or  bit  may  induce 
the  horse  to  run  away;  often  a  sore  neck  or  shoulder  resulting 
from  an  ill-fitting  collar  makes  a  horse  balk;  and  often  a  sore 
tail  produced  by  an  improperly  adjusted  crupper  causes  a  horse 
to  kick.  Since  not  only  the  usefulness  of  the  horse,  but  his  safety 
as  well,  depends  largely  on  the  adjustment  of  the  harness,  much 
careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  this  matter. 

Fitting  collar. —  Since  the  service  of  the  horse  is  largely 
accomplished  by  means  of  the  collar,  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance that  this  fit  the  neck  and  shoulder  perfectly ;  and  since  the 
shoulders  of  no  two  horses  are  exactly  alike,  each  should  have 
his  own  collar.  Unequal  pressure  due  to  a  poorly  fitting  collar 
causes  the  horse  much  pain  and  often  results  in  a  sore  neck  or 
sore  shoulders.  In  order  to  avoid  such  sores,  the  collar  should  be 
properly  adjusted.  Leather  collars  are  so  firm  and  stiff  that  it 
is  often  difficult  to  adjust  them  to  the  neck  and  shoulders.  In 
order  to  overcome  this  difficulty  the  poorly  fitting  collar,  whether 
new  or  old,  should  be  w^rapped  round  and  round  with  thoroughly 
wet  sacking  and  allowed  to  remain  so  wrapped  overnight.     In 


I 


THE  HORSE  277 

the  morning  the  soaked  collar  should  be  adjusted  snugly  to  the 
horse's  neck  with  the  hanie  straps.  Then  the  horse  should  be 
worked  moderately  through  the  day.  Soaking  the  collar  in  this 
way  serves  to  soften  it,  after  w^hich  it  will  adjust  itself  to  every 
inequality  of  the  shoulders  and  the  horse  will  seldom  be  troubled 
with  soreness. 

Sore  shoulder. —  In  case  such  sores  occur,  the  parts  may  be 
washed  with  cold  salt  water  and,  when  dry,  dusted  with  tannin 
or  finely  pulverized,  air-slaked  lime.  Oxide  of  zinc  ointment  is 
good.  This  is  made  by  mixing  one  ounce  of  oxide  of  zinc  with 
four  ounces  of  benzoated  lard*  If  the  parts  become  calloused  a 
dull  red  blister  may  be  applied,  w^hich  will  absorb  the  callous.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  rest  the  horse  while  applying  the  blister. 

Care  of  the  harness. — The  harness  should  receive  good  care, 
as  this  will  increase  the  duration  of  its  usefulness  and  lessen  the 
likelihood  of  its  injuring  the  horse.  It  is  very  important  that 
the  bearing  parts  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  at  all  times.  This 
applies  especially  to  collar,  saddle,  and  crupper.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible to  jirevent  sores  if  these  parts  are  permitted  to  become 
dirty,  which  they  are  sure  to  do,  if  not  cared  for,  because  of 
sweat  and  dandruff.  Collar,  saddle,  and  crupper  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  each  morning  before  the  horse  is  harnessed. 

Training  and  breaking  the  colt. — The  profit  and  pleasure  to 
be  derived  from  the  use  of  a  horse  depend  on  his  being  subser- 
vient to  his  master's  will.  The  more  complete  his  training  the 
better  horse  he  Avill  be.  The  problem  is,  then,  so  to  train  the 
horse  as  to  bring  him  to  his  maximum  usefulness.  This  is  dif- 
ficult. No  rules  can  be  laid  down  that  will  apply  in  their  entirety, 
or  in  every  case.  Much  depends  on  attendant  conditions.  The 
type  or  breed,  the  individuality  of  the  horse,  the  individuality 
of  the  trainer,  the  object  for  which  the  horse  is  being  trained, 
are  factors  that  will  have  much  influence  on  the  methods  of 
training.  No  attempt  is  made  here  to  discuss  the  various  train- 
ing methods,  or  to  go  into  the  matter  in  detail;  only  a  few  brief 
suggestions  are  given  in  the  hope  that  they  will  clarify  the 
mysteries  of  so-called  ''horse  breaking,"  for  entirely  too  much 
is  ordinarily  made  of  training  the  horse,  particularly  the  heavy 
types. 

The  colt  should  become  familiar  with  man  while  young.  In 
the  very  beginning  he  should  bo  taught  sul)ordination  and  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  willful  or  headstrong.  The  usefulness 
of  the  horse  will  depend  much  on  his  courage  and  fearlessness, 
and  it  is  in  order  to  promote  these  characteristics  that  the  colt 


278  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

should  become  familiar  with  man  at  as  early  an  age  as  possible. 
If  taken  in  time  and  properly  handled,  he  need  never  know  fear. 
A  colt  should  never  be  frightened.  Too  many  persons  thought- 
lessly try  to  tease  the  young  colt  by  running  at  it  or  throwing 


Fig.  147. —  Method  of  catching  young  foal. 


sticks  at  it  —  practices  which  should  never  be  indulged  if  a  relia- 
ble animal  is  to  be  developed.  The  colt  should  be  taught  useful 
lessons  only.  Because  colts  are  bright  and  susceptible  to  train- 
ing, they  are  often  taught  tricks  and  allowed  to  become  mis- 
chievous. A  colt  that  bites,  rears,  or  kicks  may  seem  amusing 
at  first,  but  this  very  behavior  may  later  prove  an  annoyance 
that  is  difficult  to  overcome.    The  trainer  should  not  make  the 


THE  HOKSE  279 

mistake  of  trying  to  teach  the  colt  too  much  at  a  time ;  he  should 
be  sure  that  it  understands  each  lesson  thoi-ouij;hly  before 
another  is  attempted.  On  the  other  hand,  colts  should  be  trained 
continuously  day  by  day,  and  not  merely  at  the  convenience  of 
the  trainer.  The  trainer  should  be  gentle  and  firm  at  all  times 
and  should  accomplish  whatever  he  attempts  to  accomplish. 

Teach  hi  rf  the  foal  to  lead. — The  colt  should  be  caught  by  put- 
ting one  hand  under  the  neck  and  the  other  under  the  hams  or 
around  the  buttocks ;  he  should  never  be  caught  around  the  neck 
alone,  for  if  this  is  done  he  will  go  backward  and  perhaps  fall. 
If  he  attempts  to  go  forward,  press  back  with  the  hand  under 
his  neck ;  and  if  he  attempts  to  go  backward,  press  forward  with 
the  hand  around  the  buttocks.  Colts  caught  in  this  way  will 
allow  persons  to  walk  up  to  them,  whereas  if  they  are  caught 
around  the  neck  there  may  be  difficulty  in  catching  them. 

"When  the  foal  is  to  be  haltered,  a  strong,  well-fitting  halter 
should  be  chosen ;  it  should  not  be  a  new  one  that  smells  strangely 
to  the  colt,  but  one  that  has  recently  been  used.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  pull  heavily  on  the  nose-band  at  any  time ;  occasion- 
ally deformed  face  lines  and  imperfect  necks  are  caused  by  this 
means.  It  is  not  necessary  to  drag  a  colt  by  the  halter  in  order 
to  suggest  to  him  that  his  business  is  to  follow.  After  such 
treatment,  the  reverse  effect  is  usual;  the  harder  the  colt  is 
pulled,  the  harder  he  pulls  back.  If,  on  the  contrary,  he  is 
coaxed  along  the  accustomed  route,  for  example  to  the  watering 
trough  and  back,  he  will  soon  follow  promptly. 

If  he  continues  to  resist,  however,  other  means  must  be  tried. 
At  all  events  the  trainer  should  not  stand  in  front  of  the  colt 
and  try  to  pull  his  head  forward,  for  he  wdll  roll  his  eyes,  shake 
his  head,  and  step  back.  Advantage  must  be  taken  of  the  colt 's 
natural  tendency  to  step  forward  when  pressure  is  brought  to 
bear  on  the  buttocks.  A  small  rope,  the  size  of  a  sash  cord  and 
about  ten  feet  long,  with  a  noose  or  a  ring  at  one  end,  should  be 
placed  gently  over  the  colt's  back  just  in  front  of  the  hips,  with 
the  noose  or  the  ring  on  the  underside  of  the  body.  When  the 
other  end  of  the  rope  is  run  through  the  noose,  the  rojoe  can  be 
closely  drawn  around  the  flanks,  passed  along  under  the  body 
between  the  forelegs,  and  then  up  through  the  ring  in  the  halter. 
This  is  called  the  loin  hitch.  The  trainer  should  pull  gently  on 
the  halter  strap  with  one  hand,  and,  as  the  colt  begins  to  shake 
his  head,  give  the  light  rope  a  sharp  pull  Avith  the  other  hand ; 
the  colt  will  immediately  step  forward.  If  the  colt  is  given  time 
to  become  used  to  the  lesson,  he  will  soon  follow  wherever  he  is 


280  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

led.  Some  trainers  prefer  the  quarters  hitch  rather  than  the 
loin  hitch. 

Training  to  the  uses  of  the  hit. —  It  is  perhaps  best  to  train 
the  horse  to  the  uses  of  the  bit  when  he  is  about  two  years  of  age. 
The  manner  in  which  the  horse  is  educated  to  the  uses  of  the  bit 
w^ill  go  far  toward  determining  his  usefulness.  Inasmuch  as  the 
master's  desire  is  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  the  horse  through  the 
medimn  of  hands,  reins,  bit,  and  mouth,  no  progress  can  be 
made,  and  none  should  be  attempted,  until  this  means  of  com- 
munication has  been  established. 

Importance  of  a  good  mouth. —  No  other  factor  contributes  so 


Fig.  148. —  Bitting  harness  for  teaching  uses  of  the  bit. 

much  to  the  pleasure,  comfort,  and  safety  of  the  driver  of  a 
horse  as  a  responsive  mouth  that  promptly  obeys  the  slightest 
instruction  from  the  master.  In  general  a  good  mouth  is  natural 
to  the  horse.  A  bad  mouth  usually  results  from  improper  hand- 
ling, and  often  is  the  cause  of  many  other  imperfections,  such  as 
a  tongue  lolling,  crossing  the  jaws,  hobbling,  and  irregular  and 
unsteady  gaits,  many  of  which,  when  well  established,  are 
difficult  to  overcome. 

Bitting  the  colt. —  The  young  animal  can  usually  be  made 
familiar  mth  the  uses  of  the  bit  by  the  application  of  the  bitting 
harness,  or  dumb  jockey  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  This  bitting 
harness  consists  of  an  open  bridle,  mth  large,  smooth  bit,  a 


THE  HOKSE  281 

clieckrein,  surcingle  and  crujpper,  and  two  side  lines  running 
from  the  bit  to  buckles  on  either  side  of  the  surcingle.  The 
adjustment  of  the  bridle  is  important.  The  length  of  the  head- 
stall must  be  so  adjusted  as  to  bring  the  bit  in  mild  contact  with 
the  bars  of  the  mouth.  If  the  headstall  is  too  short,  the  bars 
and  the  corners  of  the  mouth  soon  become  sore  and  the  animal 
may  become  vicious ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  it  is  too  long,  the  bit 
drops  down  in  the  mouth  and  the  animal  becomes  careless.  AVith 
the  bitting  harness  properly  adjusted,  the  colt  may  be  turned 
into  the  familiar  open  paddock  in  order  to  become  accustomed 
to  having  the  bit  in  his  mouth.  The  clieckrein  and  the  side  reins 
should  be  left  slack  at  first.  Gradually  from  day  to  day  the 
reins  should  be  shortened,  although  care  must  be  taken  that 
they  are  never  made  so  short  as  to  place  the  head  in  an  uncom- 
fortable position,  or  to  tighten  the  bit  and  make  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  sore.  During  a  few  hours  each  day  for  perhaps  a 
week  or  less,  the  colt  should  be  subjected  to  the  use  of  this 
apparatus.  The  side  reins  may  now  be  substituted 'for  real  lines, 
and  the  colt  may  be  driven  until  he  knows  how  to  guide  this  way 
and  that,  to  stop  at  the  word  'Svhoa,"  and  to  step  forward  at 
the  command  ''get  up."  He  should  be  trained  to  stand  abso- 
lutely still  when  he  is  being  harnessed  or  saddled,  or  at  any  time 
when  it  is  desired  that  he  should  do  so.  A  horse  that  is  con- 
tinually stepping  about  while  being  harnessed  is  but  half  trained. 
The  trainer  should  be  gentle  at^all  times,  but  he  should  a-ccom- 
plish  everything  that  is  undertaken. 

Harnessing  the  colt. — After  the  colt  has  become  familiar  with 
the  bitting  apparatus  and  has  learned  to  obey  simple  commands, 
he  may  be  harnessed. 

Before  being  harnessed  or  hitched,  the  colt  should  be  made 
familiar  with  the  pressure  caused  by  the  harness  and  the  shafts. 
In  order  to  do  this,  a  light  pole,  eight  to  ten  feet  long,  should  be 
held  for  the  colt  to  smell  and  to  touch  with  his  nose.  The  pole 
should  be  rubbed  gently  over  the  nose,  the  side  of  the  face,  and 
up  to  the  mane  and  crest.  After  scratching  the  crest  the  pole 
should  be  brought  back  to  the  withers,  down  over  the  shoulders, 
and  along  the  outside  and  inside  of  the  forelegs.  The  pole  should 
then  pass  along  the  back  to  the  hind  quarters,  and  down  along 
the  outside  and  the  inside  of  the  hind  legs.  The  process  should 
be  repeated  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  and  every 
part  of  the  body  should  be  toucljed,  until  the  colt  becomes  per- 
fectly submissive. 

The  harness  should  be  of  good  quality  and  in  good  repair,  and 


282  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


should  fit  perfectly ;  if  a  jDart  breaks,  the  colt  may  be  ruined  for 
all  time.  The  collar  should  receive  especial  attention,  since  it  is 
through  this  agency  that  the  horse  exerts  his  power,  and  the 
colt's  shoulders  are  likely  to  be  tender  and  easily  abraded.  The 
collar  must  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  If  the  colt  loses  flesh, 
the  collar  which  fitted  joerf  ectly  in  the  beginning  may  become  too 
large.    A  breast  collar  is  admissible  when  the  load  is  light.    It 


Tig.  149. — Hitched  for  the  first  time,  showing  kick  strap  over  rump,  and  safety  ropes 
to  prevent  running  and  the  like. 

must  not  be  adjusted  so  high  as  to  choke  the  animal,  nor  should 
it  be  so  low  as  to  interfere  with  the  action  of  his  limbs.  The 
saddle  and  the  crupper  also  need  careful  attention.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  have  them  fit  and  to  keep  them  clean,  lest  they  abrade 
the  back  or  the  tail  and  render  a  horse  vicious. 

Hitching  single. — When  the  colt  is  desired  for  single  use,  it  is 
often  advisable  to  train  him  to  go  single  from  the  first.  This 
may  be  done  after  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  bit,  the  har- 
ness, and  the  use  of  the  lines.  When  training  the  colt  to  go  sin- 
gle, a  training  cart,  substantially  constructed  with  long  shafts 
and  with  a  seat  so  arranged  that  the  driver  can  mount  and  dis- 
mount quickl}^,  should  be  employed.  Such  a  cart  can  easily  be 
constructed  from  the  rear  wheels  and  the  axle  of  a  buggy  or  a 


THE  HOESE  283 

carriage  by  fastening  two  long  poles  (of  hickory  or  any  tougli; 
springy  wood)  to  the  axle,  a  crossbar  and  a  whiffletree  in  front, 
and  a  board  seat  in  the  rear.  The  shafts  should  be  twelve  or 
fourteen  feet  long,  with  provision  at  the  ends  for  the  attach- 
ment of  a  strap  across  from  point  to  point  in  order  to  prevent 
the  colt  in  rearing  from  throwing  his  front  leg  over  the  end  of 
the  shaft.  At  first  a  kicking  strap  attached  to  each  shaft  and 
jDassed  over  the  colt's  rump  should  be  used,  at  least  until  the 
colt  is  accustomed  to  the  shafts.  When  the  colt  is  first  hitched, 
an  assistant  should  hold  him  until  the  driver  is  ready,  and  then 
he  should  be  allowed  to  go.  As  soon  as  he  has  become  familiar 
with  the  vehicle,  he  should  be  taught  to  stand  still  until  he  is 
told  to  go. 

Hitching  double. — With  the  harness  properly  adjusted  the  colt 
is  read}^  to  be  hitched  to  a  vehicle.  Get  a  well-trained,  gentle, 
but  active  horse  if  the  colt  is  active,  for  it  is  a  mistake  to  hitch 
a  quick,  active  colt  with  a  slow,  lazy  horse.  The  vehicle  to  which 
they  are  attached  should  be  provided  with  a  good  brake.  The 
colt  should  be  attached  to  the  "off  side"  and  they  should  be 
driven  at  first  in  a  closed  field  till  the  colt  learns  what  is  wanted 
of  him.  When  hitching  the  colt  double  for  the  first  few  times, 
it  is  well  to  keep  a  pair  of  single  lines  on  the  colt's  bridle  which 
can  be  handled  by  an  assistant. 

Training  the  colt  to  walk  fast. —  There  is  no  gait  more  valu- 
able, more  appreciated,  and  more  practically  useful  in  a  horse 
than  a  fast,  square  walk.  It  is  not  difficult  to  train  the  average 
colt  to  walk  fast,  provided  the  proper  methods  are  employed  in 
early  training.  From  the  very  beginning  the  colt  should  be 
walked  as  swiftly  as  he  is  able  to  walk,  in  order  that  he  may 
form  the  habit  of  fast  walking.  He  should  never  be  allowed  to 
mope  along,  or  the  habit  will  become  strongly  fixed. 

Training  vicious  horses.— In  training  or  handling  vicious 
horses,  it  is  important  to  impress  them  firmly  with  the  idea  that 
the  trainer  has  complete  control  over  them  and  that  they  must 
obey.  There  are  several  ways  of  conveying  this  idea.  Perhaps 
the  most  effective  means  is  to  contrive  a  self-punishing  harness. 
With  such  a  harness  the  vicious  horse  deals  out  his  OAvn  punish- 
ment at  the  instant  he  violates  his  trainer's  wish.  While  many 
appliances  have  been  devised  for  the  control  of  vicious  horses, 
perhaps  that  invented  by  Mr.  Karey  and  used  in  his  so-called 
'^Rarey  system"  is  as  effective  as  any.  This  harness  consists 
of  two  short  straps  fitted  wiih.  D-shaped  rings,  a  surcingle,  and  a 
long  rope,  The  straps  are  buckled  around  the  front  pasterns  and 


284  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  surcingle  around  the  body.  One  end  of  the  rope  is  tied  into 
the  ring  in  the  strap  that  goes  around  the  pastern  of  the  left, 
or  near,  front  foot.  The  free  end  is  then  passed  through  a  ring 
on  the  underside  of  the  surcingle  and  down  through  the  ring  at 
the  other  pastern.  Then  the  rope  end  is  brought  up  and  passed 
through  a  ring,  tied  about  halfway  down  the  right,  or  off  side 
of  the  surcingle.  If  the  animal  becomes  unruly  it  is  necessary 
only  to  pull  on  the  rope,  which  brings  his  front  foot  up  to  his 
chest,  and  the  animal  comes  down  on  his  knees  and  his  nose.  A 
few  hard  falls  will  usually  teach  the  most  incorrigible,  but  such 
a  dangerous  practice  should  be  followed  only  as  a  last  resort  and 
after  all  other  means  have  failed.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
horses  permanently  injure  their  knees  or  even  break  their  necks 
as  a  result  of  a  fall. 

By  the  application  of  such  methods,  the  most  vicious  animals 
can  ordinarily  be  brought  under  control.  If  the  horse  with  a 
disposition  to  kick,  rear,  bolt,  buck,  or  run  can  be  persuaded  that 
he  is  merely  punishing  himself,  he  will  soon  understand  that  he 
must  not  indulge  in  such  practices.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  such  animals  are  not  trustworthy  and  should  never 
be  left  to  the  care  of  persons  incompetent  to  meet  an  emergency. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  HORSE 

By  J.  II.  IlE\\aTT,  D.V.M.i 

Overloading  the  stomach  is  generally  caused  by  the  horse 
getting  into  the  feed  but  may  be  caused  in  other  ways.  The 
horse  is  at  first  dull,  hanging  back  on  the  halter,  later  pain  may 
begin  increasing  in  severity.  Early  before  symptoms  begin  give 
stimulants  such  as  F.  E.  nux  vomica  one  teaspoonful,  repeated 
in  four  hours,  or  one  ounce  each  of  sweet  spirits  nitre  and  aro- 
matic spirits  ammonia,  repeated  in  one-half  hour.  If  pain 
continues  call  a  veterinarian. 

Cramp  colic  is  generallj^  brought  on  by  chilling,  either  from 
exposure  or  drinking  an  excess  of  cold  water  when  warm.  It 
may  be  caused  by  spoiled  foods  or  improper  feeding.  The  ani- 
mal is  attacked  suddenly  and  the  pains  come  in  intermittent 
attacks.  Give  quieting  medicine  such  as  two  ounces  of  laudanum 
in  water  or  one  ounce  chloral  hydrate  in  one  pint  water  or  two 
ounces  sweet  spirits  nitre  and  one  tablespoonful  ginger  in  water. 

Wind  colic  is  caused  by  a  change  in  feeds  or  poor  feeds  and 
improper  feeding.    The  animal  is  bloated,  showing  more  on  the 

*N  Y.  State  School  of  Agriculture,  Morrisville. 


THE  HORSE  285 

right  side.  Pain  is  of  a  continuous  nature.  Give  a  purgative 
such  as  one  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil  or  one  ounce  of  aloes  or 
tablespoonful  of  ginger;  also  give  rectal  injections  of  one-half 
pail  soapy  water. 

Bots. —  The  larval  stage  of  the  hot  fly,  cannot  be  removed  by 
medicine  without  injury  to  the  horse.  They  pass  out  normally 
in  the  spring:  and  summer  to  develop  into  flies.  Prevent  by  rub- 
bing with  cloth  saturated  with  kerosene  over  eg-gs  on  hair  of  legs 
and  side. 

Stomach  worms. —  Large  and  long,  causing  an  unthrifty  con- 
dition, depraved  appetite,  sometimes  colic.  Give  one  teaspoon- 
ful  daily  for  one  week  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  copper 
sulphate  and  iron  sulphate  or  one  ounce  turpentine  in  a  little 
raw  linseed  oil  on  an  empty  stomach  for  two  or  three  mornings. 

Pin  worms  are  located  in  rectum.  Give  rectal  injections  every 
other  day  of  four  quarts  of  warm  w^ater  in  which  one  ounce  of 
iron  sulphate  has  been  dissolved. 

Constipation. —  For  mature  horses  give  one  quart  raw  linseed 
oil  or  one  ounce  aloes.  For  mature  cows  two  pounds  Epsom 
salts  and  tablespoonful  ginger  or  one  quart  raw  linseed  oil.  For 
calves  two  to  four  ounces  castor  oil.  For  colts  two  to  four 
ounces  castor  oil ;  sheep  one-quarter  pound  Epsom  salts ;  lambs 
one-half  to  one  tablespoonful  castor  oil ;  large  pigs  four  ounces 
castor  oil.  The  salts  and  oil  can  be  repeated  in  twenty-four 
hours,  the  aloes  in  thirty-six. 

Diarrhoea. —  Opposite  of  constipation.  Is  caused  by  a  sudden 
change  of  feed,  spoiled  or  musty  feed,  infection.  For  mature 
horses  and  cows  give  one  pint  castor  oil  and  two  ounces  lauda- 
num followed  with  tablespoonful  of  iron  sulphate  three  times 
daily.  For  calves,  colts,  sheep,  and  swine  give  two  to  four  ounces 
castor  oil  and  one  tablespoonful  laudanum  followed  by  one 
teaspoon ful  iron  sulphate. 

Chill. —  Caused  from  exposure,  infection  or  the  starting  of  a 
contagious  disease ;  provide  plenty  of  blankets  and  make  animal 
comfortable,  give  internally  thirty  drops  tincture  of  aconite  and 
one  teaspoonful  F.  E.  belladonna.  Repeat  in  one  hour,  if 
necessary,  or  give  one  tablespoonful  of  ginger  or  one  ounce  tr. 
arnica.  If  chill  continues  call  veterinarian.  Many  diseases  are 
ushered  in  by  a  chill  and  by  breaking  it  up  early  the  severity  of 
the  attack  will  be  lessened. 

Fever. —  Is  not  a  disease  but  a  s^anptom  of  a  disease  in  which 
there  is  a  disturbance  in  the  heat  of  the  body,  with  cold  extremi- 
ties, as  ears  and  legs.    A  chill  often  ends  with  a  fever.    Make 


286  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  animal  comfortable  and  apply  blankets ;  give  internally  one 
tablespoonful  every  six  hours  of  the  following : 

Tincture  of  aconite one  ounce 

F.  E.  belladonna two  ounces 

Saltpeter four  ounces 

Ammonium  chloride four  ounces 

Water  to  make one  pint 

Cold  in  the  head. —  Caused  by  exposure,  draughts,  damp 
stables,  poor  ventilation;  there  is  a  nasal  discharge  and  some- 
times a  cough.  Put  horse  in  dry,  well-ventilated  quarters,  feed 
laxative  food  and  give  one  teaspoonful  of  sulphate  of  iron  three 
times  daily. 

Cough. —  When  accompanied  by  a  disease  such  as  distemper 
should  be  treated  with  that  disease.  When  the  animal  seems  to 
be  Avell  otherwise  give  one  tablespoonful  of  the  follomng  mixture 
three  times  daily: 

F.  E.  belladonna one  ounce 

F.  E.  stramonium one  ounce 

F.  E.  lobelia one  ounce 

jMolasses  sufficient  to  make one  pint 

Bronchitis. —  Is  an  inflammation  of  the  windpipe  branching  to 
each  lung.  Caused  by  infection,  exposure  and  draughts.  There 
is  a  painful  cough,  a  high  fever,  and  generally  dullness  and  loss 
of  appetite.  Do  not  work  the  horse,  as  pneumonia  may  develop. 
Give  animal  dry,  well-ventilated  quarters,  plenty  of  blankets  and 
the  treatment  for  three  or  four  days  given  under  fever.  If 
animal  is  no  better  call  veterinarian. 

Pneumonia. —  Is  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs  caused  same  as 
bronchitis.  Animal  is  dull,  has  high  fever,  and  very  rapid 
breathing.  Do  not  work  and  in  addition  to  the  treatment  given 
under  bronchitis  apply  a  mustard  paste  over  the  ribs.  Take  one 
tablespoonful  of  mustard  and  two  of  flour  and  mix  into  a  thick 
paste  with  warm  water,  rub  well  into  the  hair  and  cover  with 
paper,  change  in  twenty-four  hours.  If  the  horse  is  no  better 
call  veterinarian. 

Heaves. —  Heaves  generally  develop  in  horses  that  are  fed 
large  amounts  of  hay,  especially  if  such  is  dusty  or  mouldy. 
Frequently  it  follows  distemper.  There  is  generally  a  cough 
with  the  heaves,  and  sometimes  a  rattling  in  the  throat.  Feed 
the  horse  succulent  food  as  much  as  possible  and  avoid  much 
hay.  Feed  grass,  cornstalks,  ensilage;  begin  light,  so  as  not  to 
cause  colic ;  also  give  medicine  recommended  for  cough,  or  Fow- 


THE  HORSE  287 

ler's  solution,  one  teaspoonful  three  times  daily  in  feed  for  a 
mature  horse. 

Stocking  of  the  legs. —  Give  horses  regular  exercise,  good 
food,  succulent,  if  possible;  one  quart  of  raw  linseed  oil  fol- 
lowed by  one  teaspoonful  of  saltpeter,  in  feed  three  times  daily 
for  one  week,  skip  a  week,  then  repeat. 

Nail  in  the  foot. —  Cut  down  to  sensitive  structures,  inject 
tincture  of  iodine.  If  horse  continues  in  lameness  have  black- 
smith or  veterinarian  enlarge  opening  to  let  out  pus,  then  keep 
clean  and  inject  tincture  of  iodine  daily. 


CHAPTER  XV 

DAIRY  CATTLE 
By  Prof.  John  McXutt,  B.S.* 

The  dairy  cow  occupies  a  very  important  place  in  American 
agriculture  to-day.  Her  ability  to  convert  coarse  feed  into 
palatable,  nutritious  human  food,  more  efficiently,  than  any  other 
animal  places  her  in  the  first  rank  among  the  domestic  animals. 
Fortunately,  the  dairy  industry  received  an  early  start  in  this 
country  and  it  has  grown  steadily  until  at  the  present  time  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  lines  of  our  agricultural  industry. 
Originally  the  industry  was  largely  centered  in  the  eastern 
states;  but  with  the  development  of  the  farming  lands  of  the 
middle  west,  south  and  far  west  the  industry  has  spread  all  over 
our  country.  Fine  dairy  herds  are  being  kept  at  present  where 
it  would  have  been  thought  impossible  to  interest  people  in 
dairying  fifty  years  ago.  The  opportunities  for  development  of 
the  industry,  in  the  south  and  west,  are  almost  unlimited;  and 
no  doubt  the  greatest  growth  will  occur  in  those  sections  in  the 
future.'  In  the  more  thickly  populated  sections  the  product  is 
handled  and  consumed  as  fresh  milk;  whereas,  in  the  remote 
sections  butter  and  cheese  are  made.  These  can  be  shipped  great 
distances  to  market.  The  possibilities  of  marketing  dairy 
products  makes  the  industry  adaptable  to  a  variety  of 
conditions. 

Breeds  of  dairy  cattle. —  The  four  leading  breeds  of  dairy 
cattle,  found  in  the  United  States,  are  the  Jersey,  Guernsey, 
Ayrshire,  and  Holstein.  In  addition  there  are  a  few  Dutch 
Belted,  French  Canadian,  and  Kerry  Cattle.  It  is  also  neces- 
sary to  mention  some  of  the  Dual-purpose  breeds  because  of 
their  value  and  importance  in  milk  production.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  Milking  Short-horn,  Brown  Swiss,  Red  Polled, 
and  Devon. 

The  Jersey  breed. —  The  Jersey  breed  had  its  origin  on  the 
Island  of  Jersey.  This  island  is  one  of  the  group  known  as  the 
Channel  Islands  in  the  British  Channel  off  the  coast  of  France. 
Other  islands  in  the  group  are  Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Sark. 
Jersey  is  the  largest  of  the  group  and  it  contains  about  40,000 

*  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  289 

acres.  Tlie  climate  is  mild  and  market  gardening  is  the  chief 
industry.  The  farms  are  small  and  the  farming  is  done  on  an 
intensive  scale. 

Origin  of  the  Jersey. —  While  definite  historical  records  are 
not  available  it  is  thought  that  the  Jersey  breed  originated  from 
foundation  animals  brought  from  the  mainland  of  France.  The 
cattle  of  Brittany  and  Normandy  resemble  the  Jersey  in  many 


Fig,  150. —  Jersey  bull.     Leda's  Raleigh.     Grand  champion  National  Dairy 
Show  1919. 

resj^ects.  The  purity  of  the  Jersey  breed  has  been  guarded  in 
its  native  land.  In  1763  laws  were  passed  preventing  the 
importation  of  any  cattle  to  the  island  except  for  slaughter 
within  twenty-four  hours. 

,  In  size  the  Jersey  is  the  smallest  of  the  four  leading  dairy 
breeds.  Mature  bulls  usually  weighing  from  twelve  hundred  to 
fifteen  hundred  pounds  and  mature  cows  from  eight  hundred  to 
eleven  hundred  pounds.  The  breed  matures  early.  The  heifers 
usually  breeding  earlier  than  the  other  dairy  breeds.  However, 
the  best  age  for  them  to  freshen  the  first  time  is  from  twenty- 
two  to  twenty-six  months  of  age,  if  they  are  well  grown. 

In  color  the  breed  shows  considerable  variation  from  very 
light  silver  fawn  to  deep  mulberry  brown.  White  markings 
may  occur  without  indicating  impurity  of  breeding. 


290  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  ability  of  the  breed  to  become  adapted  to  a  wide  variety 
of  conditions  is  remarkable.  They  can  be  found  in  England, 
France,  Australia,  Canada  and  all  over  the  United  States.  The 
Jersey  is  more  thoroughly  distributed  over  the  United  States 
than  any  other  dairy  breed. 

Importations  first  came  to  this  country  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  but  not  until  the  latter  part  of  the  century  were  cattle 


Fig,  151. — Jersey  covr.     Oxlonl  ^Iaie.stv  Gvpsv.     Grand  tliampiuii  National 
Dairy  Show  1917-1918. 

brought  here  in  great  numbers.  During  the  last  thirty  years 
many  excellent  cattle  have  been  imported  and  the  breed  has 
multiplied  rapidly  so  that  at  the  present  time  the  Jersey  doubt- 
less excels  the  other  dairy  breeds  in  numbers  in  the  United 
States. 

The  breed  is  noted  the  world  over  for  its  efficient  butter  pro- 
duction. Many  excellent  milk  and  butter  records  are  being 
made  by  cows  on  yearly  test  which  is  helping  the  breed  to  gain 
favor.  The  ability  of  the  cows  to  make  good  records  under 
practical  farm  conditions  and  produce  so  economically  is  a 
strong  point  in  their  favor. 

Prominent  and  popular  Jersey  families  of  to-day  are  the 
"  Oxford  Lads,  Majesties,  Raleighs,  Sophie  Tormentor,  Gam- 
boge, Combination,  and  Owl -Interest."     The  interests  of  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


291 


breed  are  looked  after  by  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club, 
offices  at  324:  West  23d  Street,  New  York  City.  The  last  volume 
of  the  herd  book  published  in  1919  indicates  the  registration  of 
167,500  bulls,  430,000  cows. 

The  Guernsey  breed. —  The  Guernsey  had  its  origin  on  the 
island  of  tlio  same  name  in  the  British  Channel.     The  climatic 


Fk;.  152. —  Guernsey  bull.    Langwater  College  King.    An  excellent  breeding 
and  show  bull. 


and  food  conditions  are  very  similar  to  that  of  Jersey  only  a 
short  distance  away.  Market  gardening  is  the  chief  industry 
on  the  island  as  is  the  case  on  Jersey.  The  island  is  smaller 
than  Jersey,  containing  onl.y  about  12,500  acres.  Fruit  and 
vegetables  are  grown  under  glass  for  slii]:>ment  to  English 
markets.  The  farms  are  small  and  tlie  cattle  are  kept  in  small 
herds  under  rather  close  confinement.^ 

The  origin  of  the  Guernsey  is  thought  to  be  about  the  same 
lis  that  of  the  Jersey.  The  breed  shows  somewhat  more  resem- 
blance to  French  breeds  than  does  the  Jersey. 

Breed  cJiaracterisfics. —  In  size  the  mature  bulls  will  average 
from  thirteen  hundred  to  sixteen  hundred.  The  cows  from  nine 
hundred  to  twelve  hundred  pounds. 

In  color  the  breed  is  usually  a  reddish-fawn,  broken  irrcciilarlv 


292  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

with  white  markings.  However,  solid  colored  animals  do  occur. 
Rich  creamy  skin  secretion  is  considered  a  valuable  point  in 
selection,  as  it  is  thought  to  indicate  richness  of  milk. 

The  breed  is  noted  for  its  production  of  rich  yellow  milk.  The 
cows  are  larger  than  Jerseys  and  will  average  a  little  more  milk 
production.  The  richness  of  the  milk  will  average  about  the 
same  as  the  Jersey,  and  the  yellow  color  is  more  evident.  The 
breed  does  not  mature  quite  as  early  as  the  Jersey  and  the 


Fig. 


-Guernsey  cow.     Langwater  Hope.     Eecord   30.882  pounds  milk 
containing  1,003.7  pounds  butter  fat  in  one  year. 


heifer  should  be  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  mouths  old  before 
freshening. 

Guernseys  were  first  imported  during  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  but  not  until  the  latter  half  of  the  century 
were  many  cattle  Ibrought  in.  The  growth  of  the  breed  was  slow 
until  the  very  last  part  of  the  century,  so  most  of  the  develop- 
ment has  occurred  during  the  past  thirty  years.  From  the  east- 
ern states  they  have  gradually  spread  to  the  west,  Wisconsin 
now  being  a  leading  Gruernsey  state.  Herds  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  south  where  they  meet  with  considerable  favor. 
No  doubt  they  will  make  a  substantial  growth  in  the  south  as 
they  are  well  fitted  for  the  mild  climate.  The  records  of  the 
breed   are   handled   by  the   American   Guernsey   Cattle   Club, 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


293 


Peterboro,  New  Hampshire.  The  last  volume  of  the  herd  book 
indicates  that  50,000  bulls,  82,000  cows  have  been  recorded  since 
the  Registry  was  established  in  1877. 

The  Ayrshire  breed. —  This  breed  had  its  origin  in  Ayrshire, 
Scotland.  The  climate  is  rugged  with  severe  winters  and  mild 
summers.  The  land  is  rolling  and  much  of  the  soil  is  of  only 
average  fertility.     Small  grains  and  hay  are  the  chief  crops. 


Fig.   154. —  Ayrshire  bull. 


Strathplass  Gold  Chink, 
winner. 


A   famous   showrinf 


The  cattle  are  grazed  on  the  hills  in  summer.  Historical  records 
show  that  cattle  of  dairy  type  existed  in  the  section  previous  .to 
the  establishment  of  this  breed.  During  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  these  cattle  were  improved  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Teeswater  bulls.  The  red  or  brown  and  white  color  was 
established  at  this  time  and  has  continued  as  the  breed  color. 
Many  brown  and  white  cattle  exist  at  present  in  Scotland. 

The  first  Ayrshires  coming  into  the  United  States  came  to 
Massachusetts  about  1825.  They  met  with  much  favor  and  grew 
to  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  New  England.  Other  importa- 
tions followed  from  time  to  time  but  not  to  the  same  extent  that 
other  dairy  breeds  have  been  imported. 

Characteristics  of  the  breed. —  The  Ayrshire  is  of  meduium 
size  compared  with  the  other  dairy  breeds,  mature  bulls  weigh- 


294  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


ing  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds.  The  modern 
show-ring  type  are  larger  than  the  type  existing  twenty  years 
ago  in  this  country.  Mature  cows  weigh  from  one  thousand  to 
fourteen  hundred  pounds.  In  color  the  breed  is  red  and  white 
or  brown  and  white.  There  are  many  animals  to-day  that  are 
nearly  all  white.  Red  occurs  on  the  sides  of  the  head  and  neck. 
As  a  breed,  they  are  more  uniform  in  type  than  any  other 


Fig.  155. —  Ayrshire  cow.     White  Heather  of  Torr.     Grand  champion  East- 
ern States  Exposition  1919. 

dairy  breed.  Their  lines  are  straight  and  features  clean  cut. 
The  medium  to  long  upright  horns  are  a  striking  feature  of  the 
breed. 

They  are  a  little  slower  to  mature  than  the  Jersey  or  Guern- 
sey and  have  a  tendency  to  carry  more  flesh.  As  grazers  on 
rough  rolling  pastures  they  are  superior,  excelling  the  other 
dairy  breeds.  They  are  very  stylish  and  active.  They  are  hardy 
and  rugged  making  tliem  a  desirable  farmer's  cow. 

They  are  more  uniform  in  type  of  udder  than  any  of  the  dairy 
breeds.  Formerly  they  were  criticized  for  having  fleshy  udders 
and  small  teats  but  these  faults  are  rapidly  being  corrected. 

As  milkers  the  breed  ranks  next  to  the  Holstein  in  quantity. 
While  the  milk  is  not  as  rich  as  that  of  the  Channel  Island 
breeds,  it  is  superior  in  quality  to  that  of  the  Holstein,  making 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


295 


the  Ayrshire  a  splendid  cow  for  the  dairyman  that  retails  his 
milk. 

The  interests  of  the  breed  are  centered  in  the  Ayrshire  Breed- 
ers Association,  organized  in  1875.  Offices  at  Brandon,  Ver- 
mont. The  Herd  Eegister  indicates  that  21,448  bulls  and  50,888 
cows  have  been  recorded  to  date. 

The  Holstein-Fresian. — The  Holstein-Fresian  breed  of  cattle 
is  the  oldest  of  our  dairy  breeds,  having  existed  in  its  native 
country  Freisland,  Holland,  for  over  one  thousand  years.    This 


Idwaiia,  Sir  Ollie.     Grand  champion  Naliunal 
Dairy  Show  1919. 


is  a  low  flat  country  noted  for  its  abundant  production  of  grass, 
hay  and  roots.  The  favorable  climatic  and  food  conditions  have 
made  possible  the  development  of  a  very  large,  heavy  milking 
breed. 

In  size  the  Ilolstein  is  the  largest  of  the  dairy  breeds,  mature 
bulls  weighing  from  eighteen  hundred  to  twenty-five  hundred 
pounds  and  mature  cows  from  twelve  hundred  to  eighteen  hun- 
dred pounds.  As  they  grow  so  large  they  do  not  mature  as  early 
as  some  of  the  smaller  breeds.  In  color  they  are  black  and  white. 
In  their  native  country  red  and  white  frequently  occurs.  It  is 
not  infrequent  that  red  and  white  calves  are  born  from  black 
and  white  stock  in  this  countrv.    However,  the  Holstein-Fresian 


296  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Association  of  America  stipulates  that  for  registration  animals 
must  be  black  and  white  which  prevent  the  registration  of  any 
off  colored  calves. 

In  milk  production  this  breed  is  supreme,  no  other  breed 
comparing  with  them  in  quantity,  but  the  percentage  of  butter 
fat  is  low.    The  average  for  the  breed  being  about  3.4  per  cent. 

The  Holstein  was  first  brought  to  this  country  by  Dutch  set- 
tlers who  established  themselves  in  New  York  State  late  in  the 
eighteenth  century.    From  there  the  breed  has  spread  well  over 


Fig.   157. — Holstein  cow.     Minerva  Beets.     Six  times  grand  champion  at 
National  Dairy  Show. 

the  United  States.  It  is  especially  strong  in  the  north  central 
states  and  northeastern  states.  It  has  never  gained  the  foot- 
hold in  the  southern  states  that  the  Jersey  has,  although  some 
good  herds  have  been  established.  No  doubt  the  breed  will  gain 
in  the  southern  states  as  the  dairy  industry  develops  there. 

The  breed  is  generally  popular  throughout  the  sections  where 
dairy  cattle  are  kept.  The  ability  of  the  cows  to  produce  so 
much  milk  makes  them  highly  desirable  in  the  sections  where 
pastures  are  good,  and  there  is  a  demand  for  market  milk. 

In  New  England  where  oxen  can  be  used  advantageously  on 
many  farms,  one  finds  many  high  class  teams  of  Holstein  steers. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  297 

Their  size  and  strength  coupled  with  ability  to  walk  at  a  good 
rate  makes  them  desirable  oxen. 

The  calves  make  excellent  veal  as  they  grow  rapidly  and  fat- 
ten readily.  As  beef  cattle  they  do  not  rank  high  as  the  waste 
is  great  in  slaughtering,  and  carcass  lacks  quality  when  com- 
pared with  the  beef  breeds. 

The  interests  of  the  breed  are  handled  by  the  Holstein- 
Fresian  Association  of  America,  established  in  1885,  with  head- 
quarters at  Brattleboro,  Vermont.  Up  to  the  present  time  259,- 
900  bulls  and  481,760  females  have  been  recorded, 

Dutch  belted  cattle. —  This  is  a  breed  of  dairy  cattle  that  lias 
existed  in  Holland  for  about  three  hundred  years.  The  striking 
thing  about  them  is  the  characteristic  color,  a  white  band  extend- 
ing around  the  body  between  the  hips  and  shoulders,  the 
remainder  of  the  animal  being  black.  The  characteristic  is  so 
firmly  impressed  on  the  breed  that  animals  often  transmit  the 
belt  to  their  offspring  when  mated  with  animals  of  other  breeds. 
In  their  native  home  they  are  known  as  Lakenfeld  cattle.  The 
conditions  under  which  the  breed  has  developed  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  Holstein.  However,  it  is  evident  that  attention 
has  been  paid  to  the  color  markings  rather  than  to  efficiency  as 
dairy  cattle.  As  a  breed  the  cows  do  not  produce  rich  milk;  so 
corresponding  quite  closely  in  quality  to  that  of  the  Holstein 
and  the  average  quantity  is  below  the  average  for  the  dairy 
breeds. 

In  size  they  are  about  the  same  weight  as  Guernseys  but  are 
a  little  longer  of  leg  and  rangy  throughout.  They  mature  about 
like  the  Holstein.  They  were  first  imported  in  1838,  coming  into 
New  York  State.  Other  importations  followed  about  1850,  but 
none  have  been  brought  to  this  country  in  recent  years,  as  the 
breed  has  never  succeeded  in  gaining  general  favor.  The  inter- 
ests of  the  breed  are  looked  after  by  the  Dutch  Belted  Cattle 
Association  of  Amrica,  with  headquarters  in  New  York  City. 
The  interest  in  the  breed  is  low  at  the  present  time. 

French  Canadian. —  This  is  a  small  breed  of  dairy  cattle  that 
originated  in  Eastern  Canada.  They  are  called  Canadian  cat- 
tle in  their  native  home.  No  doubt  the  breed  originated  from 
foundation  stock  brought  to  Canada  by  early  French  settlers. 
Although  a  little  smaller,  the  breed  resembles  the  Jersey  very 
much  in  breed,  character  and  milk  production.  It  is  very  reason- 
able to  expect  that  the  source  of  foundation  blood  was  much  the 
same.  The  weight  of  mature  bulls  is  from  one  thousand  to 
twelve  hundred  pounds  and  of  cows  from  six  hundred  to  nine 


298  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

hundred  pounds.  The  color  is  usually  a  fawn  or  brown,  quite 
similar  to  some  families  of  Jerseys.  The  milk  is  about  as  rich 
as  that  of  the  Jersey  but,  as  the  cows  are  somewhat  smaller,  the 
average  production  is  not  so  high. 

These  cattle  have  not  gained  a  strong  foothold  in  the  United 
States,  although  they  are  found  in  small  numbers  in  Northern 
New  England  and  New  York  State.  They  are  very  hardy  little 
cattle,  possessing  good  grazing  ability  and  meeting  the  condi- 


FiG.    158. —  INIilking   Shorthorn   bull.     Waterloo   Clay.     Famous   showring 
winner. 


tions  of  the  small  farmer  of  limited  means  in  the  rugged  climate 
of  their  native  country. 

Kerry  cattle. —  This  is  the  smallest  of  the  breeds  of  cattle. 
The  Kerry  had  its  origin  in  Ireland  under  very  adverse  food 
conditions.  This  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  small  size  and 
late  maturity  of  the  breed.  The  size  is  increased  and  age  for 
maturing  lowered  when  animals  are  transferred  to  more  favor- 
able climatic  and  food  conditions.  In  color  they  are  a  reddish 
I>rown  or  black,  and  they  have  characteristic  medium  length,  up- 
right horn.  They  are  short-legged,  low  set  cattle.  In  their 
native  country  they  are  kept  as  individual  family  cows  rather 
than  in  large  herds  together,  and  are  often  forced  to  exist  on  a 
very  short  feed  supply.  They  are  quite  efficient  milk  producers 
considering  their  size,  and  the  milk  is  of  good  quality.  "\¥lnle 
a  few  have  been  imported  they  have  never  gained  an  important 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


299 


place  in  America  and  j^robably  never  will.  The  interests  of  tlie 
breed  in  this  country  are  handled  by  the  Dexter  Kerry  Cattle 
Club,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Dual  purpose  breeds  —  Milking  Short-horn. —  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Short-horn  breed  of  cattle  about  two  hundred 
years  ago  there  has  existed  a  strain  of  distinctly  dairy  type 
possessing'  remarkable  milk  producing  ability.  The  cattle  from 
which  the  breed  originated  had  been  noted  for  milk  production 
£0  the  characteristic  was  well  established.     In  color  markings 


Fig.  159.— Milking  Slinrilmm  row.    Dmis  (lay.     :\nik  record  16,425  pounds, 
()1,S2()  puunds  of  buUer  fat. 

they  are  the  same  as  the  beef  type  of  Short-horn  but  in  general 
the  type  is  different,  being  more  of  the  angular  dairy  conforma- 
tion. The  colors  are  red,  red  and  white,  white,  and  roan.  The 
mature  bulls  often  average  two  thousand  to  twenty-five  hundred 
pounds  and  the  cows  fifteen  hundred  to  eighteen  hundred 
pounds.  As  milkers  the  cows  often  show  remarkable  ability. 
Volumes  I  and  II  of  the  Milking  Short-horn  Year  Rook  gives 
the  records  of  427  cows  averaging  8823.9  pounds  of  milk  each  on 
yearly  test.    The  milk  is  medium  in  richness. 

The  breed  was  first  brought  to  this  country  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  they  gradually  gained  a 
strong  foothold  as  farming  moved  westward  with  the  opening 


300  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

of  the  new  lands.  For  many  years  they  were  distinctly  the 
farmer's  cow  and  occupied  a  prominent  place  in  the  early  dairy 
industry  of  the  country.  With  the  depression  in  beef  prices  and 
the  advance  in  demand  for  dairy  products,  they  have  gradually 
been  displaced  by  the  distinct  dairy  breeds,  in  the  more  favor- 
able dairy  sections.  With  the  more  recent  advance  in  beef  prices 
much  interest  is  being  revived  and  herds  are  being  established 


Fig.    160. —  Brown    Swiss    bull.      Gallatain    Bro^vllie.      Grand    Champion 
National  Dairy  Show  1919. 

in  remote  sections  where  pastures  are  good  and  the  possibilities 
of  marketing  cream,  butter  and  cheese  are  favorable. 

The  beef  value  of  this  breed  is  a  strong  point  in  its  favor. 
The  cows  fatten  readily  when  dry  and  the  quality  of  carcass  is 
excellent.  Steers  of  this  breed  when  placed  in  the  feed  lot  make 
good  gains  and  at  slaughter  dress  out  a  high  class  carcass  of 
excellent  beef.  Wliile  they  do  not  carry  as  much  fat  as  the  dis- 
tinct beef  type  they  carry  sufficient  for  first  class  retail  trade. 
There  is  a  good  demand  for  the  feeders  as  well  as  for  the 
finished  cattle. 

In  grazing  ability  the  breed  ranks  high.  Many  herds  are 
maintained  in  good  flow  of  milk  on  pastures  alone  in  summer. 
Calves,  sired  by  a  Milking  Short-horn  bull  out  of  grade  cows, 
make  excellent  veal  and  bring  good  prices  in  the  market. 


DAIEY  CATTLE 


301 


The  interests  of  tlie  breed  are  centered  in  the  American 
iShort-horn  Breeders  Association  established  in  1882  with  head- 
quarters in  Chicago. 

Brown  Swiss  cattle. —  As  tlie  name  indicates,  this  breed  origi- 
nated in  Switzerland.  The  Brown  Swiss  has  existed  in  its 
native  comitry  as  recognized  breed  for  several  centuries.  They 
are  large,  strong,  thick  fleshed  heavy  boned  cattle,  possessing 
considerable  ability  to  produce  milk,  consequently  they  meet  the 


Fig.    161. —  Biw\ti   Swiss   cow.     Betty  "of   Lake  View. 
National  Dairy  Show   1919. 


Grand   Champion 


dual  purpose  requirements.  The  ability  of  the  cows  as  milkers 
in  their  native  country  as  well  as  in  America  has  given  the  breed 
quite  a  strong  following  in  dairy  sections.  They  are  now  classi- 
iied  in  the  National  Dairy  Show  and  in  recent  years  have  made 
an  excellent  showing.  In  size  the  mature  bulls  usually  average 
from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  pounds  and  the  cows  from 
twelve  hundred  to  sixteen  hundred  pounds.  They  mature  at 
about  the  same  age  as  the  Short-horn. 

The  grazing  ability  of  the  breed  is  excellent,  due  to  the  con- 
ditions that  they  have  been  kept  under  for  generations. 

As  beef  cattle  they  do  not  rank  high  due  to  the  heavy  bone 
and  large  waste  in  slaughter.  The  calves  make  excellent  veal 
SIS  they  grow  fast  and  fatten  readily.    Bulls  of  the  breed  used 


302  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


on  grade  cows  would  greatly  improve  the  quality  of  the  calves 
for  veal.  In  milk  production  the  breed  ranks  reasonably  high. 
Many  heavy  producing  cows  are  found  and  the  milk  is  above  the 
average  in  butter  fat.  The  breed  is  very  uniform  in  type  and 
color,  the  majority  of  the  animals  being  a  uniform  solid  brown. 
Occasionally,  animals  of  lighter  or  darker  brown  occur,  but  they 
are  not  common.    White  markings  are  decidedly  uncommon. 

They  were  first  imported  into  the  United  States  in   1869. 
Several  importations  have  followed  but  these  cattle  have  not 


Fig.  162.— Red  Polled  bull.     Teddy's  Best.     Champion  Red  Polled  bull. 

been  imported  or  bred  to  the  extent  that  the  leading  dairy 
breeds  have.  They  are  distributed  quite  well  over  Europe 
where,  they  are  valued  highly. 

The  American  Brown  Swiss  Breeders  Association  attends  to 
the  registration  of  these  cattle.  The  organization  was  estab- 
lished in  1880.     Headquarters  at  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

Red-polled  cattle. —  This  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Nor- 
folk and  Suffolk,  England.  The  cattle  of  these  two  counties 
were  interbred  resulting  in  the  establishment  of  the  breed  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  hornless  character 
has  always  been  a  striking  feature  of  the  breed.  Their  uniform 
red  color,  coupled  with  smooth  clean  cut  even  fleshed  type  has 
been  a  strong  point  in  their  favor.    They  are  of  medium  size,  the 


DAIRY  CATTLE 


303 


mature  bulls  ranging  from  sixteen  hundred  to  twenty-two  hun- 
dred pounds,  and  the  cows  from  twelve  hundred  to  sixteen 
hundred  pounds.  As  grazers  the  breed  ranks  high,  and  they  are 
especially  well  suited  to  the  rolling  pastures  of  the  Eastern  and 
Central  States.  Many  cows  of  the  breed  are  superior  milkers  and 
the  percentage  of  the  butter  fat  in  the  milk  is  above  the  average, 
making  them  desirable  cows  for  the  farmer  located  where  he 
hasn't  a  ready  market  for  whole  milk.  As  beef  cattle  they  rank 
well.  The  cows  fatten  readily  when  dry  and  the  steers  dress  out 
an  excellent  carcass  of  high  class  beef.    xVlthough  rated  as  a 


Fig.    163.— Rod   Pulled   cow.      .lean   Duluth   Millie.      Record   519.0   pounds 
butter  fat  in  one  year. 

dual  purpose  breed,  the  steers  have  made  a  creditable  record  in 
competition  with  the  beef  breeds  in  the  slaughter  trials  both  in 
this  country  and  in  England. 

As  feeders  the  steers  are  always  in  demand  as  they  gain 
rapidly  and  smoothly  so  when  finished  they  bring  a  good  price 
in  the  market.  The  prepotency  of  the  bulls  is  a  valuable  point 
in  crossing  on  grade  stock  as  they  usually  transmit  the  red  color, 
polled  character,  and  smooth  even  type. 

The  breed  was  first  imported  in  1873.  Other  importations 
followed  for  several  years,  but  none  have  been  brought  in  during 
recent  years.    The  breed  is  quite  well  distributed  over  the  Cen- 


304  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

tral  West  and  North  Central  States  but  the  interest  seems  to 
be  lagging  at  the  present  time.  The  breed  possesses  many 
desirable  points  and  it  would  seem  that  they  justify  more  inter- 
est than  is  being  taken  in  them. 

The  American  Red  Polled  Cattle  Club  was  organized  in  1883. 
The  headquarters  are  now  located  at  Gotham,  Wisconsin. 

The  Devon  breed. —  This  is  a  very  old  breed  of  cattle.  They 
originated  in  Devon  and  Somerset,  England.  This  is  a  very 
rolling  section,  well  suited  for  grazing  but  not  very  good  for 
farming.  The  type  of  the  cattle  has  been  fixed  for  many  gen- 
erations so  the  breed  is  very  uniform.  In  size,  the  mature  bulls 
weigh  fourteen  hundred  to  eighteen  hundred  j^ounds  and  the 
cows  from  one  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 
They  are  of  a  uniform  deep  red  color  with  white  sometimes 
occurring  on  the  udder.  The  horns  are  of  medium  length  with 
an  upright  curve. 

They  are  very  superior  as  grazers,  having  been  kept  on  roll- 
ing pastures  for  generations.  In  type  they  possess  smooth,  even 
straight  lines  and  are  well  proportioned  with  a  medium  short 
]eg.  While  they  are  not  a  thick  fleshed  breed  they  are  very  even 
fleshed  and  when  fattened  produce  very  high  class  beef.  Well 
finished  steers  often  dress  out  a  high  percentage  of  fine  quality 
of  beef.  As  milkers  the  cows  rank  very  well.  Their  ability  to 
do  well  on  rough  pastures  makes  them  well  suited  to  some  of  the 
liilly  sections  of  the  United  States.  The  milk  is  above  the  aver- 
age in  percentage  of  butter  fat. 

The  Devon  does  not  mature  as  rapidly  as  some  of  the  other 
breeds. 

They  were  first  imported  to  this  country  during  Colonial 
times,  and  for  some  years  were  quite  popular  in  New  England. 
However,  the  great  demand  for  milk  and  the  low  price  of  beef 
caused  the  decline  of  all  the  beef  and  dual  purpose  breeds  in 
this  section  and  the  Devon  has  not  made  a  recovery.  There  are 
a  few  herds  remaining,  and  some  good  herds  are  found  in  the 
Middle  Western  States,  but  the  breed  is  declining  at  the  present 
time  in  this  country. 

The  interests  of  the  breed  are  fostered  by  the  American  Devon 
Cattle  Breeders  Association,  headquarters,  Newark,  Ohio. 

Judging  dairy  cattle. —  The  ability  to  judge  dairy  cattle 
accurately  and  consistently  is  gained  through  continuous  experi- 
ence and  study.  It  is  true  that  some  people  have  more  natural 
ability  along  this  line  than  others  and  by  continuous  practice  they 
become  expert  in  the  selection  of  animals.    There  is  no  reason 


DAIRY  CATTLE  305 

why  anj^one  who  is  interested  in  the  subject  cannot  become  a 
reasonably  good  judge  if  they  will  give  it. sufficient  study.  Keep- 
ing milk  records  and  testing  helps  wonderfully  as  it  gives  the 
dairyman  an  opportunity  to  study  the  most  productive  types. 
In  general  all  of  the  dairy  breeds  show  the  same  clean  cut, 
angular  wedge  form  in  contrast  to  the  square  built  low  set  form 
of  the  beef  animal.  To  judge  a  breed  accurately,  one  must  know 
the  characteristics ;  such  as  size,  weight,  form,  color,  and  all  dis- 
tinguishing points  of  the  breed.  One  must  also  keep  in  close 
touch  with  breed,  noting  all  advancement  and  improvement  of 
type.  It  is  necessary  to  study  the  official  score  card  so  as  to  put 
in-oper  emphasis  on  the  various  parts.  Some  judges  have  an 
opportunity  to  become  familiar  with  only  one  breed  and  confine 
their  work  to  this  breed.  This  usually  happens  with  the  breeder 
judge.  Other  judges  make  a  study  of  several  different  breeds 
and  have  an  opportunity  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  these  differ- 
ent breeds.  Having  no  particular  interest  in  any  one  breed,  you 
have  no  breed  prejudices  and  consequently  can  judge  one  breed 
as  well  as  another  if  they  possess  natural  ability  and  have  given 
the  subject  sufficient  study. 

Selecting  or  judging^  a  dairy  cow. —  To  judge  a  dairy  cow 
accurately,  one  must  first  consider  the  points  that  make  the  ani- 
mal valuable  from  a  dairy  standpoint.  To  be  a  good  dairy  cow 
she  must  be  an  efficient  milk  and  butter  producer. 

Breeding  for  dairy  production  for  generations  has  eliminated 
the  non-essentials  in  form  and  emphasized  the  essentials.  For 
instance,  the  dairy  cow  that  produces  heavily  for  a  long  period 
must  possess  a  strong  constitution  as  shown  in  a  well  developed 
chest.  She  must  be  a  heavy  feeder,  indicated  by  a  deep  well 
sprung  middle.  To  be  a  good  milker,  she  should  carry  a  large, 
soft,  pliable,  well-formed  udder;  and  to  be  efficient,  she  should 
possess  quality  throughout  in  hide,  hair  and  bone.  A  symmetri- 
cal balance  of  all  essential  parts  is  desirable. 

Detailed  description  of  a  good  dairy  cow. — 

Size. —  Meeting  the  requirements  for  the  breed. 

General  form. —  Angular  wedge  shape,  body  deep. 

Head. —  Lean,  clean  cut,  good  proportions,  broad  forehead, 
prominent  eyes,  dished  face. 

Large  nostril. —  Broad  muzzle,  strong  jaw. 

Neck. —  Lean,  thin,  good  length,  and  clean  cut. 

Shoulders. —  Lean  and  laid  in  close  at  the  top,  giving  sharp 
withers. 


306     THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  J^^ARMERS 

Chest. —  Full  in  front,  good  width  between  front  legs,  well 
sprung  back  of  the  shoulders. 

Back. —  Straight  and  strong  carried  back  to  tail  setting. 

Middle. —  Deep  well  arched  ribs,  giving  capacity  for  feed. 

Loin. —  Grood  width  and  carried  strong. 

Hips. —  Broad  and  angular. 

Rump. —  Broad  and  level  showing  strength  and  capacity. 

Thighs. —  Lean  and  clean  cut,  allowing  ample  room  for  udder. 

Legs. —  Straight  and  strong. 

Udder. —  Well  developed  front  and  rear  with  teats  of  good 
size  placed  squarely.    Quality  of  udder  soft  and  pliable. 

Milk  veins. —  Large,  and  crooked. 

General  quality. —  Clean  cut  features.  Soft  mellow  skin  and 
fine  soft  hair,  clean  cut  bone. 

Faults  to  avoid  in  selection  of  a  cow. —  Long  narrow  heads, 
narrow  chests,  shallow  body,  short  heavy  neck,  coarse  withers, 
sway  back,  narrow  hips,  steep  rump,  flat  ribs,  unbalanced  udder, 
fleshy  udder,  small  teats,  crooked  legs,  and  coarse  hair,  hide  and 
bone. 

Judging  dairy  bulls. —  In  general,  the  dairy  bull  resembles  the 
dairy  cow  in  conformation  except  that  he  shows  masculine  char- 
acter and  the  cow  shows  feminine  character. 

The  same  general  plan  should  be  followed  in  judging.  The 
bull  should  represent  the  breed  in  general  character.  He  should 
be  strong,  rugged  and  masculine.  He  should  be  well  developed 
in  the  chest  insuring  a  good  constitution,  also  in  spring  and 
depth  of  rib  indicating  a  good  feed  capacity.  Masculinity  is 
shown  in  a  clean  cut  strong  well  proportioned  head,  also  well 
developed  neck  and  crest.  The  shoulder  should  be  strong  but 
smooth  and  laid  in  nicely  at  the  withers.  The  chest  should  be 
well  developed  back  of  the  shoulder.  The  back  should  be 
straight  and  strong.  Ribs  well  sprung  and  deep.  Hips  strong, 
rump  level  and  tail  set  level.  The  legs  should  be  of  medium 
length  and  properly  set.  Crooked  legs  are  to  be  avoided.  It  is 
unreasonable  to  expect  a  bull  to  transmit  good  conformation  to 
his  offspring  if  he  does  not  possess  it  himself.  In  the  selection 
of  a  breeding  bull,  take  the  one  showing  the  most  desirable  con- 
formation coupled  with  heavy  production  in  his  ancestry. 

A  good  looking  bull  with  poor  production  records  back  of  him 
will  prove  to  be  a  detriment  rather  than  a  help  in  the  good  pro- 
ducing dairy  herd.  Much  emphasis  should  be  placed  on  both 
type  and  production  in  the  selection  of  the  herd  bull. 


DAIRY  CATTLE  307 

DAIRY    CATTLE    MANAGEMENT 

Management  of  the  herd  bull. —  The  herd  hull  must  be  kept  in 
good  physical  condition  if  his  usefulness  as  a  sire  is  to  be  real- 
ized. Many  people  fail  to  recognize  the  importance  of  keeping 
the  bull  in  good  strong  healthy  condition.  The  value  of  a  sire 
in  breeding  will  depend  largely  on  how  he  is  managed.  From 
birth  the  bull  should  receive  a  ration  furnishing  an  abundance 
of  muscle  and  bone  building  material  so  as  to  insure  first  class 
development.  Exercise  during  the  growing  period  is  especially 
important.  As  the  bull  reaches  maturity,  all  sudden  changes  in 
feeding  and  management  should  be  avoided.  He  should  be 
sheltered  in  roomy,  clean,  well  ventilated  quarters,  preferably 
a  good-sized  box  stall  connected  with  the  lot  so  he  can  go  out 
and  in  as  he  wishes.  Buildings  and  fences  should  be  strong  and 
secure  to  prevent  the  bull  breaking  out. 

If  the  bull  is  active  he  may  not  need  any  extra  exercise  but  if 
lie  has  a  tendency  to  get  lazy  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  regular 
exercise  in  the  yoke  or  tread  mill.  A  mature  bull  can  just  as 
well  do  considerable  regular  work  and  be  much  better  as  a 
breeder  for  it.  Bulls  that  have  become  uncertain  breeders  often 
hecome  prompt  sure  breeders  as  a  result  of  regular  work. 

In  feeding  the  bull  liis  needs  must  be  studied.  If  he  works  he 
will  need  more  than  if  he  remains  idle.  A  variety  of  feeds  is 
far  better  than  the  same  nutrition  foimd  in  only  one  or  two 
feeds.  Bearing  in  mind  that  he  must  be  kept  in  good  strength 
and  vigor,  the  ration  should  contain  some  legume  hay  if  possi- 
ble. Clover  or  alfalfa  hay  is  very  desirable  along  with  some  corn 
fodder  or  silage.  A  good  grain  mixture  is  corn  meal  or  hominy 
three  parts,  ground  oats  three  parts,  wheat  bran  three  parts, 
h'nseed  meal  one  part,  and  feed  just  sufficient  to  keep  the  bull  in 
good  thrift.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  getting  the  dairy 
bull  too  fat  or  allowing  him  to  get  too  thin.  The  health  of  the 
bull  sliould  be  carefully  guarded.  He  should  not  be  allowed  to 
serve  cows  that  have  aborted,  until  they  have  been  cleaned  up 
and  are  free  from  the  disease.  If  through  accident  or  careless- 
ness he  does  serve  such  a  cow  he  should  be  thoroughly  washed 
up  with  a  mild  disinfectant  solution,  to  prevent  him  spreading 
the  disease  to  other  cows.  He  should  be  tested  regularly  for 
tuberculosis  and  discarded  as  a  sire  if  found  diseased,  as  it  is 
not  reasonable  to  expect  strong  vigorous  healthy  offspring  from 
diseased  parents.  The  secret  of  success  in  herd  bull  management 
is  plenty  of  exercise,  careful  handling,  and  a  reasonable  amount 
of  good,  clean,  wholesome  feed. 


308  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FARMERS 

Management  of  the  dairy  cow. —  The  average  dairy  cow  is 
fully  mature,  as  far  as  growth  is  concerned,  when  she  is  five 
years  old.  The  heaviest  production  usually  occurs  during  the 
fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years. 

The  length  of  gestation  period  of  the  cow  is  283  days.  This 
makes  it  possible  for  her  to  produce  a  calf  every  year  and  pro- 
duce milk  from  nine  to  eleven  months  each  year.  Every  dairy 
cow  should  have  a  rest  of  from  four  to  ten  weeks  every  year. 
The  age  at  which  first  calf  is  born  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
breed,  as  indicated  in  the  chapter  on  breeds.  If  the  heifer  is 
well  grown  she  can  be  rebred  safely  in  ten  to  twelve  weeks  after 
calving,  which  will  bring  her  second  calf  about  one  year  later 
than  the  first.  This  plan  can  well  be  followed  allowing  the  cow 
to  calve  every  twelve  months  or  thereabout.  A  cow  should  be 
well  fed,  when  dry,  to  insure  proper  nourishment  for  her  unborn 
calf  and  to  have  her  in  good  condition  at  calving  time. 

The  cow  that  calves  in  good  condition  has  an  abundance  of 
reserve  for  heavy  production  during  her  lactation.  The  cow 
that  calves  thin  in  flesh,  starts  off  at  a  serious  disadvantage. 
Cows  should  have  regular  exercise  when  dry  to  maintain  their 
strength  and  vigor.  Laxative  feed,  such  as  silage  and  clover 
hay,  are  good  feeds.  A  little  linseed  meal  in  the  grain  ration  is 
desirable.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  constipation  at  calving 
time.  If  constipation  does  occur  right  at  the  last,  the  best  treat- 
ment is  to  dissolve  one  pound  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  quart  of  warm 
water  and  give  as  a  drench.  This  will  usually  rectify  the  trouble 
and  help  to  reduce  any  feverish  condition  of  the  udder. 

The  cow  should  have  a  good,  clean,  comfortable  stall  in  which 
to  calve.  If  all  goes  well  the  calf  will  be  delivered  within  an 
hour  or  two  from  time  the  first  labor  pains  appear.  If  the  calf 
does  not  come  within  a  reasonable  time,  an  examination  should 
be  made  by  some  one  who  understands  such  work  and  if  neces- 
sary assistance  given.  The  normal  presentation  of  the  calf  is 
front  feet  first  with  the  head  extended  along  the  front  side  of 
the  legs.  If  the  presentation  is  not  normal  the  services  of  some 
one  skilled  in  handling  such  cases  should  be  secured  at  once. 

A  normal  calf  will  be  on  its  feet  within  an  hour  or  two  after 
birth  and  is  usually  anxious  to  suck.  The  good  herdsman  will 
be  on  hand  to  assist  the  calf  in  getting  the  first  milk  which  is 
quite  essential  to  clear  and  regulate  the  bowels. 

Experience  has  taught  us  that  much  trouble  regarding  milk 
fever  can  be  avoided  by  not  milking  the  cow  out  during  the  first 
twenty-four  to   thirty-six  hours  after  calving.    The   calf  can 


DAIRY  CATTLE  309 

remain  with  the  cow  for  three  or  four  days  when  it  should  be 
tauglit  to  drink  milk  from  a  pail  if  it  is  to  be  raised.  If  there  is 
no  fever  in  the  udder  the  milk  will  bo  suitable  for  food  by  the 
sixth  day.  The  cow  should  be  fed  carefully  during  the  first  few 
days  and  if  she  recovers  normal  condition  the  ration  should  be 
increased  steadily  up  to  the  amount  the  cow  is  capable  of  con- 
suming without  digestive  disturbance.  The  feeder  should  study 
liis  cows  carefully  and  watch  them  closely.  The  most  economical 
milk  production  occurs  during  the  first  months  after  freshening; 
so  the  cow  should  be  supplied  with  all  the  feed  she  can  handle. 

Feeding  dairy  cows. —  If  possible,  corn  silage  should  be  util- 
ized as  it  is  a  nutritious  succulent  feed,  furnishing  nutrition  in 
the  cheapest  form  when  put  up  in  proper  condition.  There  is 
)iothing  more  suitable  to  feed  with  corn  silage  than  either  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay.  Such  hay  is  rich  in  muscle  and  bone  building 
material  and  is  excellent  for  the  milking  cow.  The  grain  feeds 
that  can  be  utilized  along  with  corn  silage  and  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay  will  be  determined  largely  by  the  feeds  available,  and  the 
market  price.  A  grain  ration  that  might  be  suitable  in  one  state 
might  be  too  expensive,  or  not  possible  in  another.  A  very  good 
rule  to  follow  in  herd  feeding  is  to  supply  an  average  of  ten  to 
twelve  pounds  of  good  legume  hay,  along  with  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  silage  per  cow  daily,  and  for  grain  feeding  one 
pound  of  grain  to  three  and  one  half  pounds  of  milk  produced. 
Some  cows  will  do  better  than  others  and  the  feeder  should 
determine  the  ability  of  each  cow  and  feed  accordingly. 

If  cows  are  on  good  pasture  with  plenty  of  grass,  and  not  too 
much  travel,  they  usually  refuse  hay  and  silage ;  if  the  pasture 
is  extra  good  they  sometimes  refuse  grain  feed  for  a  time. 

The  observing  feeder  will  watch  closely  and  feed  grain  silage 
and  hay  as  the  shortage  of  pasture  requires. 

In  making  up  a  grain  ration  for  cows  it  is  usually  best,  if  at 
least  three  or  four  feeds  can  be  used  in  a  mixture  as  it  adds 
variety  which  is  an  important  factor  in  keeping  cows  on  feed 
for  a  continuous  period.  Ordinarily  corn,  oat,  barley  or  wheat 
by-product  feeds  are  utilized  along  with  linseed  or  cottonseed 
meal  to  make  up  the  ration  for  the  dairy  cow.  Such  rations 
possess  variety,  as  the  feeds  come  from  different  plants.  Roots 
can  also  be  used  to  advantage  if  silage  is  not  available.  Carrots, 
parsnips,  mangel  and  sugar  beets  are  all  good.  Dried  beet  pulp, 
a  carbohydrate  feed,  is  very  good  and  can  be  fed  wet  in  the 
place  of  silage  or  along  with  silage. 

For  best  results,  the  silage  should  be  made  from  corn  that  is 


310  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


allowed  to  come  practically  to  maturity;  as  such  corn  carries  a 
maximum  amount  of  nutrition  and  the  silage  will  not  be  so 
strongly  acid.  Immature  corn  makes  an  acid  watery  silage,  low 
in  feed  value.  Spoiled  feed  should  always  be  avoided  as  it 
usually  results  in  digestive  disturbance  and  loss  of  milk  flow. 

DAIRY   RATIONS 

Good  rations  for  Dairy  Cows,  of  1,000  lbs.  weight,  milking  30  to  35  lbs.  per  day. 


Ration  No.  1 : 

Clover  hay   

Corn  silage 

....      12  lbs. 
...      32     " 

Ration  No.  3— (Continued)  : 

Gluten  meal 

Ground  oats 

.       3  lbs. 
2     " 

....        2     " 
3     " 

2     " 

Wheat  bran 

Ration  No.  4: 

Mixed  hay   

Corn  stover    .                  ... 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Linseed  meal   

3     " 
1     « 

.      14  lbs. 

....      10  lbs. 
32     " 

.      12     " 

Ration  No.  2: 

Alfalfa  hay 

Corn  silage 

Gluten  meal 

^Vheat  bran 

3     " 

3     " 

Ground  oats 

3     " 

Gluten  meal  

3     " 

2     " 

Linseed  meal   

Ration  No.  5: 

Mixed  hay   

Beets  or  carrots 

Wheat  bran 

1     " 

2     " 

Corn  meal 

2     " 

.      16  lbs. 

14  lbs. 

....      35     " 
3     " 

.      30     " 
3     " 

Mixed  grass  hay 

Corn  silage  ...    

Wheat  bran   

Corn  meal 

Ground  oats   

Cottonseed  meal 

3     " 
3     " 

2     " 

Raising  calves. —  Nearly  all  dairy  calves  are  taken  from  their 
dams  when  they  are  only  a  few  days  old  and  fed  from  a  bucket. 
Most  calves  learn  to  drink  readily  if  started  by  the  time  they 
are  a  week  old.  The  calf  that  sucks  its  mother  for  a  few  days 
usually  starts  off  nicely.  "When  separated  they  will  usually 
learn  to  drink  more  readily  if  allowed  to  get  hungry.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  over  feeding.  It  is  usually  better  to 
feed  less  at  a  feed  and  give  them  three  or  four  feeds  per  day  for 
two  or  three  weeks.  The  average  young  calf  should  not  drink 
over  four  or  five  pounds,  of  milk  at  a  feed  at  first.  The  amount 
should  be  increased  as  the  calf  grows  older,  and  should  be  cut 
down  if  digestive  trouble  arises.  It  is  best  to  feed  the  new  milk 
from  the  mother  while  it  is  still  warm  until  the  calf  is  three  or 
four  weeks  old,  at  which  time  skim  milk  can  be  gradually  sub- 
stituted, taking  two  weeks  for  the  complete  change. 

Calves  will  usually  begin  eating  grain  feed  and  hay  when 
about  three  weeks  old.  Some  will  begin  earlier,  and  such  feed 
should  be  supplied  to  bring  about  normal  development.  An 
excellent  grain  mixture  for  calves  is  oats  three  pounds,  wheat 
bran  three  pounds,  corn  meal  three  pounds  and  linseed  meal  one 


DAIRY  CATTLE  311 

pound.  A  convenient  feed  box  should  be  provided  and  some  of 
the  grain  put  in  the  calf's  mouth  as  soon  as  the  milk  is  finished. 

A  little  feed  in  the  box  will  soon  attract  the  calf  and  it  will 
soon  be  eating  regularly.  Stale  feed  should  not  be  left  in  the 
box.  If  a  convenient  rack  is  jorovided,  the  calf  will  soon  learn 
to  eat  hay.  The  best  to  supi^ly  is  a  fine  grade  of  clover  or  alfalfa 
as  it  furnishes  the  necessary  muscle  and  bone  building  material. 

Calf  stables. —  Calves  can  be  kept  together  in  large  pens  or 
in  small  single  pens.  In  either  case  the  stable  should  be  light, 
clean,  warm  and  well  ventilated.  There  are  advantages  in  the 
single  pen  system  and  it  is  generally  preferred  as  the  feeder  can 
observe  the  calf  more  closely.  Winter  grown  calves  can  be 
grown  more  cheaply  to  maturity  than  spring  calves. 

The  fall  calf  is  usually  sufficiently  developed  to  do  well  on 
pasture  by  the  following  spring,  whereas  the  spring  calf  is  not 
old  enough  to  subsist  on  pasture  the  first  season.  Many  are 
weaned  from  milk  and  turned  out  too  soon.  Such  calves,  coming 
into  the  stable  in  poor  condition  in  the  fall,  seldom  do  well  the 
first  winter  unless  given  extremely  good  care. 

Skim  milk  should  be  fed  if  possible  until  the  calf  is  six  or  seven 
months  old.  If  a  supply  is  available  it  can  be  used  to  advantage 
longer.  The  cost  of  growth  and  gain  is  much  less  the  first  year 
than  later  which  emphasizes  the  urgent  need  for  good  feeding 
and  care  during  the  early  life  of  the  animal.  The  breeder  should 
give  the  calves  the  best  of  feed  and  care  as  his  success  will  be 
determined  by  their  growth  and  development. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  COW 

Bx  J.  H.  Hewitt,  D.V.]\I. 

Bloating;. —  Caused  by  spoiled  food,  clover,  alfalfa.  Animal 
is  bloated  more  on  left  side,  may  be  in  much  .pain.  Severe  cases 
should  be  treated  by  a  veterinarian  who  may  have  to  draw  the 
gas  with  a  trocar.  Mild  cases  may  be  treated  by  giving  two 
pounds  of  Epsom  salts  and  one  tablespoonful  of  ginger  or  one 
ounce  turpentine  in  oil.  A  smooth  stick  arranged  like  a  bit  on 
Avliich  the  cow  can  chew  will  often  start  the  gas.  For  sheep  give 
one-half  pound  salts.    Dissolve  salts  in  hot  water. 

Off  feed  is  indigestion  caused  by  overfeeding,  poor  or  spoiled 
food,  sudden  change  of  foods.  Clean  out  bowels  with  two  pounds 
of  Epsom  salts  and  one  tablespoonful  ginger  for  grown  animal. 
Also  give  one  tablespoonful  three  times  daily  of  the  following : 

Sodium  sulpliate,  sodium  bicarbonate,  powdered  nux  vomicae,  powdered  gentian, 
salt,  four  ounces  each. 


312  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Losing  cud  means  that  the  animal  is  sick ;  give  treatment  as 
for  off  feed.    If  animal  is  no  better  call  a  veterinarian. 

Scours  or  diarrhoea;  constipation. — See  Horse. 

Choking"  is  generally  by  apple  or  potato  lodged  in  food  pipe. 
Locate  object  if  possible  and  work  it  up  into  the  throat  where  it 
can  be  removed  by  the  hand.  If  this  fails  it  may  be  carried  down 
by  a  piece  of  garden  hose,  using  gentle  pressure.  Do  not  use  a 
stiff,  straight  instrument.  A  small  amount  of  oil  will  sometimes 
start  the  obstruction. 

Garget  comes  on  frequently  in  cows  that  are  highly  fed,  espe- 
cially on  concentrated  food.  Reduce  heavj^  feeds,  as  gluten. 
Milk  frequently.  Open  bowels  by  one  pound  of  Epsom  salts, 
repeated  if  necessary.  Also  give  one  teaspoonful  of  saltpetre 
three  times  daily  for  one  week.  One-half  ounce  F.  E.  poke  root 
three  times  daily  is  excellent. 

Inflammation  of  the  udder  is  a  condition  in  which  the  udder 
is  swollen,  hot  and  painful.  Bathe  frequently  with  hot  water 
followed  b}^  an  application  of  melted  lard  or  skunk  oil.  Also 
give  two  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  and  milk  frequently. 

Chapped  and  sore  teats. —  Caused  by  dirt  and  cold  moisture. 
Apply  compound  tincture  benzoin  once  or  twice  daily.  Carbolic 
salve  is  good. 

Blackleg  is  caused  by  a  germ  or  bacteria.  Most  cases  affected 
die.  Usually  begins  Avith  a  lameness  in  leg,  the  part  swelling  and 
crackling  as  hand  is  rubbed  over  skin.  Animal  has  high  fever. 
Dead  animals  should  be  deeply  buried,  covered  with  quick  lime, 
or  burned.    Vaccinating  with  blackleg  vaccine  is  a  preventive. 

Milk  fever. — A  disease  which  occurs  near  calving  time,  or 
shortly  after.  Cows  in  good  condition  and  large  milkers  are  most 
susceptible.  At  first  the  cow  is  uneasy,  then  loses  control  of  the 
hind  parts  and  finally  goes  down  unable  to  get  up,  lying  on  left 
side  with  head  on  right  flank,  groaning  as  if  in  paint.  Treatment  : 
Wash  and  disinfect  udder  and  teats,  then  inflate  udder  Avith 
sterilized  air.  As  a  preventive  keep  udder  distended  with  milk 
for  a  day  or  two. 

Mammitis. — Inflammation  of  the  udder  from  infection,  injury, 
or  too  concentrated  food.  Clean  out  bowels  with  two  pounds 
Epsom  salts  and  one  ounce  ginger.  Follow  by  daily  doses  of  one 
ounce  saltpeter.  Also  give  one  ounce  F.  E.  poke  root  in  a  pint 
water  morning  and  evening.  Bathe  udder  with  hot  Avater  and 
apply  an  oil  or  ointment  (lard  is  very  good). 

To  stop  bleeding  after  dehorning. —  Tie  a  cord  tightly  about 
the  base  of  the  horns. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

CARE  OF   MILK  ON  THE  FAEM 
By  II.  T.  Baldwin,  B.S.A.* 

Milk  is  a  highly  perishable  product  which  requires  great  care 
in  production  and  handling  to  keej)  it  in  a  wholesome  condition. 
Whether  it  is  sold  as  market  milk  or  made  into  butter,  condensed 
milk,  or  cheese,  it  is  almost  always  used  as  a  food  and  should  bo 


^"■:    i:^ 


'-    1     \^ 


Flu.    164. —  Clean  cows  give  ciejiii  milk.     A   cow   when    Icit    1( 
surroundings;  a  clean  stable  will  aid  her  in  producii 


•l-scit     Clin(] 

■lean  milk. 


kept  free  from  contamination.  Clean,  pure  milk  of  low  bacterial 
count  also  keeps  longer  and  generally  brings  a  better  price  than 
milk  tilled  with  sediment  and  containing  large  numbers  of 
bacteria. 

Healthy  cows  give  clean,  pure  milk.    The  dirt,  sediment,  and 
undesirable  varieties  of  bacteria,  which  reduce  the  keeping  quali- 


*  Dairy  specialist. 


313 


314  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

ties  and  value,  get  into  the  milk  after  it  lias  left  the  cow.  How 
much  or  how  little  of  these  contaminating  materials  will  get  into 
the  milk  will  therefore  depend  upon  the  dairyman. 

How  to  keep  down  the  bacterial  count. —  If  the  following 
suggestions  are  carried  out,  a  milk  of  low  bacterial  count  and 
little  sediment  will  be  produced : 

1.  Keep  the  barn  clean. 

2.  Keep  the  cows  clean;  with  a  damp  cloth  wipe  the  udder 
and  flanks  before  milking. 


Fig.  165. —  A  clean  herd  means  cleaner  milk.     Currying  and  brushing  COWS 
on  a  modern  dairy  farm. 

3.  Milkers  should  wash  their  hands  often  and  milk  with  the 
' '  dry-hand ' '  method. 

4.  Milk  into  a  small-top  milk  pail. 

5.  Keep  the  milk  cans  covered. 

6.  Wash  and  sterilize  ^^^th  steam  all  milk  utensils  before 
using. 

7.  Cool  the  milk  to  fifty  degrees  F.  as  soon  as  possible  after 
milking  and  keep  it  cold. 


CAEE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  315 

ROUTINE  OF  HANDLING  MILK 

Straining. —  After  the  milk  is  drawn  it  should  be  taken  at 
once  to  the  milk  house  to  be  strained  and  cooled.  Straining  is 
best  done  through  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton  between  two 
cloths,  or  through  special  '^filter  cloth." 

Straining  the  milk  takes  out  dirt  and  sediment  but  does  not 
remove  the  bacteria.  There  are  many  kinds  of  strainers  in  use 
and  these  vary  greatly  in  efficiency.  The  following  are  the  most 
common  materials  used  for  strainers,  arranged  in  order  of  effi- 
ciency :  Absorbent  cotton,  cheesecloth,  two  thicknesses ;  cheese- 
cloth, one  thickness,  and  wire  gauze.  Strainers  made  of  wire 
gauze  are  the  least  efficient.  Strainers  of  all  types  should  be 
washed  and  sterilized  after  each  using;  otherwise  the  millions 
of  l)acteria  which  have  collected  on  them  will  contaminate  sub- 
sequent milkings. 

At  certain  intervals  the  milk  from  each  cow  should  be  weighed 
and  tested  to  determine  her  production  and  profitability. 

Cooling. —  AVhen  milk  has  been  strained  it  should  be  cooled  as 
soon  as  possible  to  a  temperature  of  fifty  degrees  F.  or  lower. 
By  cooling  the  milk  soon  after  it  is  produced,  the  development 
of  bacteria  is  checked,  as  bacteria  multiply  slowly  at  low 
temperatures. 

Milk  can  be  cooled  more  rapidly  if  it  is  first  run  over  a  cooler 
or  aerator.  Such  coolers  allow  a  thin  film  of  milk  to  pass  over 
a  surface  which  is  kept  cold  by  means  of  cold  water  kept  in 
circulation,  or  Avith  water  and  ice.  This  takes  the  heat  out  of 
the  milk  and  also  some  undesirable  odors,  provided  the  sur- 
rounding air  is  pure.  From  the  aerator  the  milk  may  be  poured 
into  milk  cans  and  set  into  tanks  filled  with  cold  water  or  ice. 
Milk  should  be  kept  covered  while  cooling  and  in  storage.  The 
cooling  tanks  are  often  made  from  concrete  or  of  wood  lined 
with  metal. 

Milk  should  be  kept  in  ice  water  until  started  on  its  way  to 
the  station  or  plant. 

Bottling. —  Where  there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  milk 
handled  to  warrant  the  use  of  a  bottling  machine,  a  funnel  will 
often  serve  the  purpose  of  getting  the  milk  into  the  bottle.  The 
milk  tank  on  most  centrifugal  separators  can  also  be  used  by 
]iouring  the  milk  into  the  tank  and  using  the  faucet  as  a  filling 
device.  Milk  bottles  should  be  washed  and  sterilized  before 
using,  and  the  caps  put  on  as  soon  as  the  bottles  are  filled. 
Bottled  milk  can  be  kept  cold  by  packing  in  crates  holding  from 
six  to  a  dozen  bottles  and  filled  with  ice. 


316  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Utensils. —  All  utensils  used  in  milk  production  and  handling 
should  be  washed  and  sterilized  after  each  use.  Unsterilized 
milk  pails,  milk  cans,  strainers,  etc.,  h^ve  been  found  to  be  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  contamination.  Directions  for  ster- 
ilizing utensils  are  given  on  page 

Separating  the  cream. —  Where  the  cream  is  to  be  separated 
from  the  milk,  the  milk  is  put  through  the  separating  process 
immediately  after  straining.  This  makes  it  possible,  where  a 
centrifugal  separator  is  used,  to  feed  the  skim  milk  to  calves  or 
other  stock  while  it  is  still  warm.    For  details  see  pages         to 

Gravity  separator. —  Where  only  a  small  amount  of  cream  is 
handled,  it  is  often  separated  by  gravity.    The  cream  is  placed 


my/////////////////////^^^^ 


BOILER   ROOM 


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y  ttT£3« 


\JASH  ROOM 

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COOLING     TANK 


MILH    ROOM 

COOLER 


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Fig.  166. — Plan  of  a  milk  house  for  a  medium  size  dairy  farm.  Dimensions 
10  feet  by  8  feet  6  inches  high  in  front  and  6  feet  6  inches  in  rear.  Out- 
side covering  should  be  building  paper  and  sheathing  or  weatherboarding. 

in  deep  cylindrical  cans  and  the  cans  placed  in  cold  water  until 
the  cream  has  risen  to  the  top.  This  process  usually  requires 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  hours. 

The  milk  house. —  A  milk  house  provides  a  place  where  dairy 
products  may  be  handled  in  a  sanitary  manner.  In  planning 
such  a  house,  avoid  having  rough  surfaces  and  ledges  where 
dirt  may  lodge.  Windows  and  ventilators  are  of  great  impor- 
tance in  keeping  the  air  fresh,  and  in  sunmier  all  doors  and 
windows  should  be  screened.  Plenty  of  water  must  be  available 
and  may  be  supplied  by  a  regular  water  system  or  from  an 
elevated  tank  fed  by  a  mndmill  or  engine. 

Steam  or  hot  water  is  very  necessary  for  washing  and  steriliz- 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM 


317 


ing  milk  cans  and  utensils.  After  washing,  all  such  utensils 
should  be  scalded  with  boiling  water  or  steamed. 

The  plan  of  a  milk  house  shown  is  intended  for  a  medium- 
sized  dairy  and  may  be  enlarged  or  reduced  to  suit  each  farmer's 
conditions. 

The  building  should  have  a  good  concrete  floor,  pitched  to 
drain  through  a  bell  trap.  The  side  walls  should  be  plastered 
with  cement  on  metal  lathing  as  high  as  the  windows.  The 
remainder  of  the  walls  and  ceiling  may  be  covered  with  matched 
boards  and  then  painted  with  a  washable,  Avhite-enameled  paint. 
A  ventilating  flue  should  extend  through  the  roof  from  the  ceil- 
ing. The  windows  should  be  hinged  and  set  flush  with  the  inside 
wall  when  closed. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  one  and  one-half-  to  two-horse- 
power vertical  boiler,  which  supplies  steam  to  the  sink  and  to 
the  steam  jet  in  the  drain  board ;  a  galvanized-iron  wash  sink ; 
a  can  rack ;  a  Babcock  tester ;  cooling  tank ;  a  milk  cooler ;  and 
milk  scales  and  separator. 


FxG.  167. — Outside  view  of  a  ^ood  type  of  milk  house.     The 
house  is  shown  in  Figure  166. 


ouud  plan  for 


;i8     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


COOLING  MILK  ON  THE  FARM 

Cooling  milk  and  cream  x^i'omjDtly  and  properly  Avould  pre- 
vent, to  a  large  extent,  the  enormous  losses  which  are  occasioned 
by  the  souring  of  these  products  before  they  reach  the  market. 
All  milk  contains  bacteria.  These  bacteria  multiply  rapidly  at 
temperatures  above  fifty  degrees  F.  No  matter  how  carefully 
the  milk  has  been  produced,  if  it  is  not  cooled  innnediately  and 
kept  cold,  bacteria  will  develop  and  cause  it  to  sour. 

Surface  cooler  or  aerator. —  To  obtain  rapid  and  economical 
cooling,  the  milk  or  cream  should  first  be  run  over  a  surface 
cooler.  Best  results  Avill  be  obtained  if  each  cow's  milk  is  cooled 
immediately  after  milking,  instead  of  waiting  until  all  the  milk 
is  drawn.    This  will  save  considerable  time,  as  all  except  the  last 

pail  of  milk  will  have  passed 
over  the  cooler  by  the  time 
the  last  cow  is  milked.  While 
most  surface  coolers  require 
running  water,  some  of  the 
simpler  coolers  are  fitted  with 
a  tank,  in  which  either  ice  Ava- 
ter  or  running  water  can  be 
used.  If  cold  Avater  is  avail- 
able, the  temperature  of  warm 
milk  may  be  lowered  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  de- 
grees F.,  or  very  close  to  the 
temperature  of  water.  Pre- 
cooling  in  this  manner  saves 
both  time  and  ice.  From  ten 
to  fifteen  gallons  of  water  are 
required  to  lower  the  temperature  of  one  gallon  of  milk  to  the 
temperature  of  the  water. 

Types  of  coolers. —  A  simple  t^^pe  of  surface  cooler  is  shown 
in  figure  168.  The  milk  is  poured  into  the  upper  bowl,  which  has 
a  row  of  small  holes  around  the  outer  edge  of  the  bottom.  The 
milk  runs  through  these  holes  on  to  the  surface  of  the  conical 
tank  which  contains  the  water.  As  the  milk  coming  down  in  fine 
streams  hits  the  conical  surface,  it  spreads  into  a  thin  film  and 
is  quickly  cooled  as  it  passes  over  the  cold  surface.  Either  run- 
ning water  or  ice  and  Avater  may  be  used  Avith  this  type  of  cooler. 
If  ice  water  is  used,  the  contents  of  the  tank  should  be  stirred 
frequently  with  an  agitator,  to  keep  a  supply  of  cold  AA^ater  near 


168. —  Milk  cooler  and  aerator. 


I 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM 


319 


the  surface  of  the  cooler.  When  the  milk  reaches  the  bot- 
tom, it  is  caught  in  a  trough  from  which  it  drains  into  the 
milk  can. 

The  type  of  cooler  shown  in  figure  1G9  requires  running  water 
under  pressure,  as  the  water  must  pass  upward  through  the 
cooler  and  out 
through  a  drain  at 
the  top.  The  warm 
milk  flows  down- 
ward from  the  sup- 
ply tank  over  both 
sides  of  the  cooler 
and  drains  off  at 
the  bottom.  The 
coldest  part  of  this 
cooler  is  at  the  bot- 
tom, so  that  the 
w  a  r  m  milk  first 
comes  in  contact 
with  the  warmer 
portion  at  the  top 
and  comes  in  con- 
t  a  c  t  with  colder 
portions  as  it 
passes  to  the  bot- 
tom. 

Coolers,  like  oth- 
er milk  utensils, 
require  sterilizing 
after  each  using. 

Cooling  tanks. — 
While  surface  cool- 
ers are  a  great  aid 
in  cooling  milk  and  cream,  they  do  not  complete  the  cooling  pro- 
cess. A  cooling  tank  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  cool  the  milk 
to  a  low  temperature  and  hold  it  there. 

Cooling  tanks  are  generally  constructed  of  concrete  or  of  wood 
lined  with  a  nonrusting  metal.  Such  tanks  must  be  watertight 
and  should  be  provided  with  an  outlet  at  the  bottom  to  drain 
off  the  water  when  cleaning  them.  The  walls  should  be  suffi- 
ciently high  to  allow  the  upper  level  of  the  water  to  reach  the 
necks  of  the  milk  cans,  and  the  drain  pipes  should  be  arranged 
to  hold  it  at  this  level.    Narrow  strips  should  be  placed  in  the 


Fig.  169. —  Insulated  concrete  cooling  tank  partially  sunk 
in  the  cement  floor;  also  a  surface  cooler  in  opera- 
tion. 


320  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

bottom  of  the  tank  to  hold  the  cans  off  of  the  tank  floor  and  to 
allow  cold  water  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  cans. 

Size  of  tanks. —  The  size  of  the  tanks  should  be  suited  to  the 
number  of  cans  to  be  handled.  However,  as  the  quantity  of  milk 
varies  from  season  to  season  and  from  year  to  year,  it  is  advis- 
able to  divide  the  tank  into  two  compartments.  Too  large  a  tank 
results  in  a  waste  of  ice,  while  a  tank  that  is  crowded  with  milk 
cans  does  not  provide  space  for  sufficient  ice  to  cool  the  milk.  The 
tank  should  be  placed  in  the  milk  house  where  it  will  be  protected 
from  the  sun  in  summer  and  from  the  extreme  cold  in  winter. 

Use  of  ice. —  Ice  should  be  put  in  the  cooling  tank  long  enough 
before  milking  to  bring  the  water  to  a  low  temperature  by  the 
time  the  milk  is  ready  for  cooling.  The  amount  of  ice  necessary 
to  cool  and  hold  each  gallon  of  milk  at  fifty  degrees  F.  will  vary 
from  one  and  one-half  to  two  and  one-half  pounds,  provided  the 
milk  was  precooled  and  the  water  in  the  cooling  tank  was  forty- 
five  degrees  F.  when  the  milk  w^as  put  in.  Where  milk  is  not 
precooled,  about  four  pounds  of  ice  will  be  required  per  gallon 
of  milk. 

Well  or  spring  water  for  cooling  milk. —  If  well  water  or 
spring  water  is  used  for  cooling  milk,  the  water  should  be 
pumped  from  the  well  or  spring  direct  to  the  cooling  tank ;  other- 
wise the  water  will  be  too  warm  when  it  arrives  at  the  tank. 
The  inlet  should  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  allowing  the  water 
to  flow  around  the  milk  cans  and  out  of  the  top. 

Construction  of  tanks. —  While  wooden  tanks  have  given  good 
results  in  cooling,  an  insulated  concrete  tank  is  much  more  desir- 
able. Such  a  tank  is  easily  built  and  can  be  set  partly  in  the 
ground.  When  the  tank  is  set  low,  cans  of  milk  can  be  lifted  in 
or  out  with  very  little  effort.  The  total  thickness  of  the  walls 
of  an  insulated  concrete  tank  should  be  eight  inches,  divided  into 
two  walls,  the  outside  being  two  inches,  then  two  inches  of  good 
insulation,  and  the  inside  wall  four  inches  thick.  The  concrete 
mixture  should  consist  of  one  part  Portland  cement,  two  parts 
clean,  sharp  sand,  and  four  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel.  For 
the  purpose  of  waterproofing,  hydrated  lime  equal  to  ten  per 
cent  by  weight  of  the  cement,  should  be  added  to  the  mixture. 
The  insulation,  which  generally  consists  of  some  commercial 
fibre  insulator,  should  be  coated  with  and  set  in  hot  asphalt, 
which  should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  the 
inner  walls  of  the  tank  are  put  up.  The  inside  walls  should  be 
very  carefully  troweled  to  insure  a  smooth  surface  without 
projecting  particles. 


i 


CAEE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  321 

HINTS  ON  SHIPPING  MILK  AND  CREAM 

If  milk  reaches  its  destination  in  a  sour  condition,  it  generally 
means  a  total  loss  to  the  jDroducer,  so  that  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  get  it  to  the  receiving  plant  in  good  condition. 
Assuming  that  the  milk  is  cooled  inmiediately  after  it  is 
obtained,  the  following  i)recautions  vnW  greatly  aid  in  keeping 
milk  sweet  and  in  good  condition. 

Keeping  milk  cold.—  Milk  should  be  kept  as  cold  as  possible 


Fig.  170. —  Type  of  motor  truck  used  in  Virginia  to  insure  quick  hauling  of  milk  to 
the  shipping  station. 

before  and  during  shipping.  The  cans  of  milk  should  be  kept 
in  cold  water  or  ice  water  —  if  ice  is  obtainable  —  up  to  the  time 
of  starting  them  for  market.  Milk  cans  should  be  kept  out  of 
the  sun  if  possible.  If  transported  in  a  wagon  or  a  truck,  a 
tarpaulin  thrown  over  the  cans  will  aid  in  keeping  out  the  heat. 

Where  milk  is  transported  long  distances  to  market  in  the 
smmner  time,  covers  or  jackets  made  of  felt  or  other  insulating 
material  are  sometimes  placed  around  the  cans  to  keep  out  heat. 

Special  cans  built  with  insulated  walls  can  also  be  obtained. 
These  cans  are  designed  to  keep  the  milk  at  whatever  tempera- 
ture it  is  put  into  the  can.    Milk  must  be  cold  before  it  is  put  into 


322   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

these  cans,  and  it  is  also  advisable  to  cool  off  the  inside  of  these 
cans  before  filling  them  with  milk. 

Bottled  milk  or  cream  may  be  kept  cold  during  delivery  by 
placing  bottles  in  crates  packed  with  ice.  These  crates  are  par- 
titioned off,  leaving  a  space  for  each  bottle,  and  are  usually  lined 
with  zinc. 

Formerly,  when  nearly  all  cream  was  shipped  to  creameries 
in  a  sour  condition,  icing  or  cooling  was  not  considered  neces- 
sary. Many  creameries,  however,  are  now  demanding  a  better 
grade  of  cream  and,  in  some  cases,  sweet  cream,  and  paying  a 
higher  price  for  it.  This  means  that  cream  must  be  shipped 
oftener  and  kept  cold.  The  same  precautions  recommended  in 
cooling  and  handling  milk  will  be  found  equally  advisable  in 
handling  cream.  When  warm  cream  is  added  to  cream  from  a 
previous  milking,  which  has  been  cooled,  it  tends  to  increase  the 
temperature  of  the  whole  mass  and  hasten  souring.  See  that 
all  cream  is  cold  before  it  is  mixed.  Cream  does  not  sour  as 
quickly  as  milk,  and  thick  cream  does  not  sour  as  quickly  as  thin 
cream ;  therefore,  milk  should  be  separated  to  produce  thirty  or 
thirt3"-five  per  cent  cream.  Such  cream  sours  slowly,  is  less 
bulky  to  handle,  and  leaves  more  skim  milk  on  the  farm. 

Ice  supply.— It  rarely  happens  that  water  from  wells  or 
springs  is  cold  enough  in  the  summer  time  to  cool  milk  to  fifty 
degrees  F.  It  is  advisable,  therefore,  to  provide  a  supply  of  ice 
for  use  during  the  summer.  In  general,  from  one-half  to  one 
ton  of  ice  is  required  per  cow  to  cool  cream  only,  and  one  and 
one-half  to  two  tons  per  cow  if  whole  milk  is  to  be  cooled.  In 
storing  ice,  fifty  per  cent  more  should  be  packed  than  is  needed, 
to  allow  for  shrinkage.  One  ton  of  ice  will  take  up  about  forty 
cubic  feet  of  space  in  the  ice  house. 

Sterilize  all  containers  and  utensils. —  Milk  cans,  milk  bottles 
and  utensils  often  appear  clean  after  washing,  but  in  reality 
contain  thousands  of  bacteria.  These  containers  should  be  both 
washed  and  sterilized. 

Many  progressive  creameries  wash  and  sterilize  cans  before 
they  are  returned  to  the  producer,  but  this  can  not  be  depended 
upon  and  the  dair^^man  should  make  certain  by  sterilizing  them 
along  with  the  other  utensils. 

Washing  the  cans. —  Milk  cans  and  utensils  should  be  washed 
with  warm  water  and  sal  soda  or  other  Avashing  powder,  using  a 
stiff  brush.  Wash  until  the  greasy  film  has  been  cleaned  off, 
then  rinse  with  hot  water. 

Sterilizing"  with   steam. —  Where    steam  under   pressure   is 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM 


323 


available,  an  outlet  pipe  is  generally  extended  uj)  through  a 
table  or  rack  so  that  it  projects  vertically  through  the  surface 
about  five  or  six  inches.  Cans  or  other  utensils  to  be  sterilized 
are  placed  upside  down  over  this  steam  jet  and  the  steam  turned 
on.  Forty-five  seconds  are  required  for  sterilizing  with  live 
steam  and  the  can  is  then  removed,  using  gloves  or  cloth  pads 
to  protect  the 
hands,  and  placed 
bottom  side  up  to 
drain.  As  the  cans 
are  very  hot,  they 
dry  quickly. 

Where  a  boiler 
is  not  available,  a 
homemade  steam 
sterilizer  can  be 
made  from  a  roast- 
ingpan  to  which 
has  been  fitted  a 
tight-fitting  cover. 
The  cover  can  be 
made  by  any  tin- 
smith and  has  a 
small  vertical  pipe 
soldered  to  it  at 
the  center,  which 
acts  as  a  chimney 
for  the  escaping 
steam.  In  the  pan 
is  placed  about  one 
inch  of  hot  water 
and  the  pan  set  on 
a  hot  stove.  When 
the  steam,  which  is 
tested  with  a  ther- 
mometer, has  reached  two  hundred  and  five  degrees  F.,  a  can 
or  other  utensil  may  be  placed  over  the  steam  jet  and  steril- 
ized. It  requires  about  five  minutes  for  sterilizing  where  the 
steam  is  at  two  hundred  and  five  degrees  F.  or  over.  A  metal 
box  should  be  constructed  to  fit  over  the  sterilizing  pan.  This 
will  provide  a  means  for  sterilizing  strainer  cloths,  covers  for 
milk  cans  and  other  small  articles.  When  dry,  place  covers 
on  cans,  and  set  utensils  Avhere  dust  will  not  get  on  them. 


171. —  Simple  and  inexpensive  steam  sterilizer,  con- 
sisting of  a  roasting  pan  with  a  special  cover  which 
can  be  made  by  any  tinsmith. 


324  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Sterilizing  with  boiling  water. —  Utensils  may  also  be  steril- 
ized by  immersing  in  boiling  water.  This  method  requires  a 
tank  large  enough  to  acconmiodate  the  largest  utensil  if  complete 
sterilization  is  to  be  obtained.  The  utensils  should  be  boiled  for 
five  minutes. 

Care  of  cans. — The  name  of  the  owner  should  be  painted  on 
the  milk  cans,  or  a  durable  tag,  giving  name  and  address,  should 
be  securely  fastened  on  the  handle.  Cardboard  tags  wear  out 
quickly  and  should  be  inspected  before  each  trip.  Tops  should 
be  fastened  on  the  can  with  heavy  wire  and  locked  with  a  pad- 
lock, the  producer  and  receiver  each  having  a  key.  This  will 
prevent  loss  of  covers  and  tampering  with  milk  while  on  its  way 
to  market. 

Cans  which  are  rusty  on  the  inside  or  from  which  the  tin  has 
worn  off  can  not  be  cleaned  properly  and  should  not  be  used  for 
shipping  milk. 

THE  MILKING  MACHINE 

Economic  value. —  The  main  purpose  of  the  milking  machine 
is  to  save  time  and  labor.  Where  herds  are  large,  much  time 
can  often  be  saved  by  the  use  of  the  mechanical  milker;  also, 
where  labor  is  scarce  it  takes  the  place  of  one  or  more  milkers. 
On  the  other  hand,  where  herds  are  small  and  labor  is  plentiful, 
especially  if  there  are  a  number  of  boys  on  the  farm,  a  dair3^man 
would  probably  find  it  cheaper  to  milk  by  hand.  In  view  of 
these  facts  it  would  be  advisable  for  each  dair>Tnan  who  is  con- 
sidering the  installation  of  a  milking  machine  to  make  a  careful 
anal3\sis  of  his  own  particular  conditions  before  making  the 
investment. 

The  relative  cost  of  hand  milking  and  machine  milking  is  a 
problem  very  difficult  to  work  out,  as  these  costs  vary  widely 
not  only  in  different  sections  but  on  different  farms  in  the  same 
section.  In  general,  however,  herds  of  less  than  twenty  cows 
can  be  milked  cheaper  by  hand  than  by  machine.  This  is,  of 
course,  not  a  hard  and  fast  rule  and  does  not  mean  that  all  herds 
of  less  than  twenty  cows  should  be  milked  by  hand.  For  instance, 
one  man  living  in  a  neighborhood  where  labor  is  scarce  or  high 
in  price  and  without  the  help  of  a  family  would  very  likely  find 
a  mechanical  milker  economical. 

The  labor  question. —  Aside  from  lessening  the  cost  of  milking 
in  large  herds,  the  mechanical  milker  has  a  further  advantage 
in  that  it  tends  to  make  the  dairyman  less  dependent  upon  hired 
help. 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM 


325 


In  some  instances,  however,  the  man  in  charge  of  the  dairy 
does  not  attempt  to  understand  the  operation  of  the  machine, 
but  depends  altogether  on  hired  labor  to  do  the  milking.  Under 
such  circumstances,  the  mechanical  milker  does  not  make  the 
owner  any  less  dependent  upon  hired  labor,  and  if,  upon  install- 
ing, the  owner  has  reduced  the  number  of  milkers,  the  machine 
may  tend  to  make 
the  dair>^nan  even 
more  dependent 
upon  his  employ- 
ees than  if  he 
carried  the  usual 
number  of  milk- 
ers and  milked  by 
hand. 

Stripping^  after 
milking.  —  The 
cow  with  a  normal 
udder  and  teats  of 
uniform  size  can 
be  most  success- 
fully milked  with 
the  machines.  It 
is  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  strip 
every  cow  after 
milking  with  the 
machine.  By 
stripping  is 
meant  the  draw- 
ing of  the  last  bit 
of  milk  from  the 
udder.  This  is 
best  done  bv  milk- 


FiG.  172. — A  milking  machine  ready  for  business.- 
Courtesy  of  College  of  AgricuViure,  Cornell. 


ing  with  the  hand  in  the  usual  Avay  rather  than  by  drawing  the 
teat  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  as  the  word  stripping 
implies.  The  stripping  should  be  done  as  soon  after  removing 
the  teat  cups  as  possible.  Whether  the  machine  gets  all  the  milk 
or  not,  stripping  should  not  be  neglected,  for  it  enables  the 
operator  not  only  to  be  sure  that  all  milk  has  been  drawn,  but 
also  to  come  in  contact  with  every  teat  in  the  herd  at  each 
milking,  so  that  any  abnormal  condition  of  the  udder  or  teat  may 
be  detected  at  once. 


326  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Before  becoming  accustomed  to  the  machine,  nervous  cows 
may  hold  up  their  milk.  Massaging  the  udder  while  the  machine 
is  on  and  careful  stripping  later  will  prevent  the  leaving  of  milk 
in  the  udder. 

Some  dairymen  believe  that  no  harm  results  from  the  practice 
of  leaving  the  machine  on  the  cow  after  all  the  milk  has  ceased 
to  flow.  Disregarding  the  fact  that  this  might  prove  harmful  to 
the  more  delicate  cows,  it  is  an  uneconomic  use  of  the  milking 
machine,  as  it  wastes  time. 

Speed  in  milking. —  A  great  part  of  the  value  of  a  milking 
machine  lies  in  its  ability  to  save  time.  The  more  expert  the 
operator,  the  more  valuable  is  the  machine.  One  man  should 
handle  at  least  two,  and,  if  possible,  three,  units,  and  strip  after 
them  himself.  The  deftness  of  the  operator  has  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  the  speed  of  milking,  and  each  motion  should  be  made 
to  count. 

System  of  operating. —  Where  more  than  three  units  are  used, 
the  following  methods  of  operation  are  generally  followed : 

1.  Each  man  handles  two  or  three  machines,  does  his  own 
stripping  and  handling  of  the  milk. 

2.  One  man  operates  from  four  to  six  machines,  an  assistant 
doing  the  stripping  and  handling  the  milk. 

The  first  method  is  ordinarily  preferable,  as  it  enables  each 
man  to  become  familiar  with  the  machine  and  to  know  just  how 
to  handle  it  on  each  cow  milked.  In  order  that  the  mechanical 
milker  may  be  a  success,  it  is  essential  that  the  operator  under- 
stand his  cows  as  well  as  his  machine. 

Cows  fresh  in  milk  should  be  milked  carefully  until  the  tender 
tissues  of  the  teats  and  udder  become  accustomed  to  the  strain 
of  milking. 

Contagious  diseases. —  Cows  having  contagious  udder  troubles 
are  best  milked  by  hand  until  cured.  In  this  case  the  hands 
should  be  washed  in  the  same  manner  as  is  recommended  for  the 
teat  cups.  If  milked  by  machine,  the  operator  should  carry  with 
him  a  part  of  the  sterilizing  solution  (as  recommended  for  steril- 
izing teat  cups  and  tubes)  and  a  pail  of  clean  water.  After  each 
affected  cow  has  been  milked,  the  teat  cups  should  be  dipped  in 
the  sterilizing  solution  and  then  rinsed  in  the  water.  Handling 
the  units  in  this  way  should  prevent  the  spread  of  udder  diseases 
and  meet  the  objection  sometimes  advanced  that  milking 
machines  spread  contagious  diseases. 


CAKE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FAKM  327 


CLEANING  AND  STERILIZING  MILKING  MACHINES 

Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be  placed  upon  the  importance  of 
properly  cleaning  and  sterilizing  the  milking  machine.  To  pro- 
duce clean  milk  and  avoid  danger  of  spreading  disease  in  the 
herd,  the  machine  must  be  kept  clean.  To  produce  milk  of  low 
bacterial  count  requires  great  care  in  cleaning.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  following  cleaning  method  has  given  good  results : 

Immediately  after  milking,  the  machine  should  be  rinsed. 
This  may  be  done  by  immersing  the  teat  cups  in  a  pail  of  clean 
water  and  turning  on  the  vacuum,  Avhich  Avill  draw  the  water 
through  the  teat  cups  and  tubes  and  into  the  bucket.  A  washing 
solution  made  by  adding  a  small  amount  of  washing  soda  com- 
joound  to  some  hot  Avater,  may  be  drawn  through  the  units  in  the 
same  manner  as  outlined  above,  after  which  all  parts  should  be 
thoroughly  rinsed  with  hot  water. 

At  least  twice  a  week  all  rubber  tubing  should  be  disconnected 
and  washed  in  a  soda  solution  with  the  aid  of  brushes. 

Between  milkings  the  rubber  parts  must  be  kept  immersed 
in  some  liquid,  which  for  sanitary  reasons  must  be  sterile.  The 
purpose  of  this  is  twofold.  The  solution  mil  help  to  preserve 
tlie  rubber,  which  must  never  be  allowed  to  become  dry,  and  it 
will  check  the  growth  of  bacteria  Avhich  might  later  contaminate 
the  milk  flowing  through  the  tubes. 

The  preparation  of  this  solution  is  one  of  the  most  important 
chores  connected  with  the  care  of  the  milking  machine.  If  it  is 
to  be  of  value,  rather  than  an  additional  source  of  contamination, 
it  must  be  kept  clean  and  sterile. .  To  insure  this  condition,  the 
solution  must  be  made  up  with  sufficient  strength  to  overcome 
the  germs  that  enter  -with  the  tubes,  etc.,  and  it  must  be  fresh. 
It  is  recommended  that  a  new  solution  be  made  up  daily  and  it 
never  should  be  used  over  two  days. 

The  ''soak  solution"  may  be  made  by  using  one  of  the  com- 
mercial preparations  recommended  by  the  milking-machine  man- 
ufacturer, or  it  may  be  made  by  the  operator  by  following  the 
directions  here  given: 

1.  Dissolve  a  twelve-ounce  can  of  commercial  chlorinated  lime 
(it  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store)  in  two  gallons  of  water. 
Strain  into  a  crock  and  keep  covered  in  a  cool  place.  This  is 
known  as  the  stock  solution. 

2.  To  make  the  soak  solution  in  which  the  tubes  and  teat  cups 
are  to  be  immersed,  put  one-half  glassful  of  the  stock  solution 
into  every  two  gallons  of  water  used.    Use  water  enough  to  keep 


328  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  tubes  completely  covered.  A  large  crock  or  wooden  vat  may 
be  used  for  the  purpose  and  it  should  be  kept  covered. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  to  sterilize  by  boiling  the  rubber- 
ware  of  the  milking  machine.  However,  the  teat  cups  and  rubber 
tubes  can  be  rendered  very  nearly  sterile  by  placing  them  in  a 
tank  of  cool  water  and  gradually  heating  the  water  up  to  a 
temperature  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  degrees  to  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  degrees  F.  and  holding  at  that  temperature  for 
a  half  hour.  They  should  then  be  removed  and  placed  in  a  sterile 
solution  until  used  again.  This  treatment  is  recommended  if  the 
dairyman  is  trying  to  maintain  a  very  low  bacterial  count. 

The  vacuum-pipe  line  should  be  flushed  out  at  least  twice  a 
month  with  hot  water  in  which  has  been  dissolved  plenty  of 
washing  soda  or  washing  powder.  In  this  process  the  suction  is 
used  to  draw  the  cleaning  solution  through  the  pipes. 

In  handling  the  tubes  and  teat  cups  the  operator  should  be 
careful  not  to  let  any  oil  get  on  the  rubber  parts,  for  oil  rots 
rubber  quickly.  Boiling  water  and  steam  ^vi\\  also  shorten  the 
life  of  rubber  according  to  the  amount  of  heat  applied. 

In  producing  milk  of  low  bacterial  count  it  is  advisable  to  wash 
off  the  teats  and  udder  of  the  cow  and  draw  a  little  milk  from 
each  teat  before  applying  the  cups. 

Appoint  one  man  to  do  the  cleaning.  When  one  man  is  alone 
responsible,  he  will  usually  keep  the  machine  in  proper  condition. 

THE  CREAM  SEPARATOR 

On  a  large  percentage  of  the  farms  throughout  the  country, 
it  has  been  found  more  advantageous  to  market  the  milk  in  the 
form  of  cream  rather  than  to  sell  it  as  a  whole  milk.  Under  this 
system  the  milk  is  separated  on  the  farm  and  the  cream  is  sold 
at  a  local  creamery  or  hauled  to  the  shipping  station  for  trans- 
portation to  more  distant  markets.  This  method  of  marketing 
has  several  advantages.  It  saves  much  hauling  by  greatly 
reducing  the  bulk  of  the  commodity  to  be  handled.  Also,  the 
skim  milk,  which  contains  valuable  feeding  elements,  can  be  fed 
to  the  calves  or  other  young  stock  on  the  farm. 

Types  of  separators. —  Cream  may  be  separated  from  the  milk 
by  gravity  or  by  a  centrifugal  (mechanical)  separator.  Of  these 
two  methods  the  latter  is  by  far  the  more  efficient  and  economi- 
cal. The  gravity  separation  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
shallow-pan,  the  deep-setting  or  the  water-dilution  method. 
These  systems  were  used  exclusively  in  the  past  and  are  still 
in  use  in  certain  sections  where  dairying  is  undeveloped  and  on 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  329 

farms  where  only  a  few  cows  are  milked.  In  the  first  method, 
the  milk  is  poured  into  shallow  pans  and  allowed  to  set  in  a  cool 
place  for  about  thirty-six  hours,  during  which  time  the  cream 
rises  to  the  surface.  The  cream  surface,  which  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  often  absorbs  objectionable  odors  and  flavors.  The  greatest 
disadvantage,  however,  is  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk,  which 
varies  from  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent. 

The  deep-setting  method  of  separation  is  the  best  of  the 
gravity  systems,  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  better  quality  of  both 
cream  and  milk  is  obtained.  As  soon  as  milk  is  draAvn  from  the 
cow,  it  is  placed  in  a  deep  but  narrow  can,  and  the  can  set  in  cold 
water,  preferably  with  an  addition  of  ice,  for  twelve  hours.  The 
low  temperature  causes  the  cream  to  rise  quickly  and  the  separa- 
tion takes  place  while  the  milk  is  still  in  good  condition. 
However,  by  this  method  about  0.5  per  cent  of  the  butterfat 
remains  in  the  skim  milk. 

The  water-dilution  method  is  probably  the  least  used,  as  it 
results  in  a  loss  of  butter  fat  equal  to  the  shallow-pan  method 
and  has  the  further  objection  of  adding  a  watery  flavor  to  the 
cream  and  reducing  the  value  of  the  skim  milk  by  dilution. 

AVith  the  centrifugal  separator  the  separation  is  accomplished 
in  a  few  minutes  while  the  milk  is  still  warm  and  perfectly  fresh. 
This  is  a  great  advantage  in  getting  a  good  quality  of  perfectly 
sweet  cream.  The  skim  milk  also  is  more  valuable  when  fed 
fresh  and  warm  to  calves  and  young  stock.  Furthermore,  when 
the  milk  is  fed  soon  after  it  is  produced  the  chances  of  contam- 
ination are  lessened  and  the  bacterial  content  will  ordinaril}^  be 
much  lower  than  when  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time. 

The  centrifugal  method  also  has  the  advantage  over  other 
methods  of  separating  in  that  the  thickness  of  the  cream  can  be 
regulated  at  will  simply  by  turning  the  cream  screw. 

The  centrifugal  separator  skims  to  a  very  small  fraction  of 
one  per  cent,  so  that  practicall}^  no  butter  fat  is  left  in  the  skim 
milk.  This,  of  course,  results  in  a  considerable  saving  and, 
unless  the  quantity  of  milk  to  be  skimmed  is  very  small,  the  sep- 
arator is  a  jDaying  investment.  There  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule 
for  determining  the  number  of  cows  a  dairyman  should  milk 
before  it  will  pay  him  to  buy  a  separator,  but  ordinarily,  where 
the  herd  numbers  more  than  four  or  five  cows,  the  use  of  a  sep- 
arator would  prove  to  be  economical. 

Size  of  separator. — The  size  of  the  separator  required  wall 
depend  on  the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  produced.    However, 


330  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FAEMERS 

in  determining  the  size  of  separator  that  will  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  herd  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  herd  mil  prob- 
ably increase  from  year  to  year,  and  purchasing  a  separator 
Avith  a  slightly  larger  capacit}'^  than  is  actually  needed  at  pres- 
ent will  save  the  dairyman  buying  a  new  and  larger  machine 
later  on. 

Principle  of  centrifugal  separation. — The  centrifugal  sep- 
arator separates  the  cream  from  the  skim  milk  by  centrifugal 
force.  This  is  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  skim  milk  par- 
ticles are  heavier  than  the  fat  particles.  The  milk  on  entering 
the  rapidly  revolving  separator  bowl  is  forced  to  the  outside  of 
the  bowl.  As  the  skim  milk  particles  are  the  heaviest  they  are 
thrown  against  the  bowl  walls,  displacing  the  lighter  fat  glob- 
ules and  forcing  them  back  toward  the  center,  where  they  are 
drawn  off  as  cream.  The  skim  milk  is  collected  from  the  outside 
of  the  bowl  and  removed  through  another  channel. 

CARE  OF  THE  CREAM  SEPARATOR 

The  cream  separator  is  generally  placed  in  the  milk  house  or 
other  room  where  the  milk  will  not  be  exposed  to  odors  and  bad 
air  while  in  course  of  separation.  As  most  separators  run  at  a 
high  speed,  they  should  be  firmly  secured  to  a  solid  floor  or  foun- 
dation in  order  to  prevent  vibration.  If  the  separator  is  not  so 
secured  the  frame  will  vibrate  and  cause  the  bowl  to  wabble. 
Under  such  conditions  the  separation  of  cream  from  the  milk  is 
not  complete  and  considerable  butter  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk. 

Foundation  for  the  separator. — The  cement  floor  is  the  best 
type  of  floor  for  the  separator,  as  it  does  not  vibrate  and  is  easily 
kept  clean  and  free  from  odors.  If  the  machine  is  to  be  set  upon 
cement,  bolts  should  be  embedded  in  the  floor  with  enough  of 
the  threaded  end  exposed  to  allow  washers  and  a  nut.  Space  for 
the  washers  is  jorovided  so  that  they  may  be  added  or  removed 
in  leveling  up  the  machine.  If  this  method  is  used,  careful  meas- 
urement should  be  made  to  get  the  bolts  exactly  in  the  right 
place,  for  an  error  of  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch  may  necessitate 
resetting  one  or  more  bolts. 

Good  results  have  also  been  obtained  by  setting  two  four-by- 
four's  or  other  solid  timbers  in  the  cement  about  where  the  base 
of  the  separator  is  to  rest.  Lag  screws  are  then  used  to  secure 
the  separator  to  the  timbers. 

"Where  the  floor  is  already  laid,  holes  may  be  drilled,  the  bolts 
inserted,  and  hot  lead  poured  into  the  holes  until  even  with  the 
surface  of  the  cement. 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  331 

If  the  separator  is  placed  on  a  wooden  floor,  it  can  be  secured 
to  the  floor  with  lag  screws.  Whether  the  floor  is  of  cement  or 
wood,  before  the  bolts  or  screws  are  finally  tightened,  the  ma- 
chine should  be  leveled.  This  is  very  necessary  in  order  to  get 
the  best  skimming  results.  Separators  are  commonly  leveled 
\nth  a  spirit  level.  It  is  placed  across  the  l)owl  casing  and  the 
machine  leveled  from  right  to  left  and  from  front  to  back.  It  is 
important  that  all  separators  be  leveled,  but  especially  so  Avith 
those  not  having  self-balancing  bowls. 

A  cream  separator  is  usually  the  most  delicate  piece  of 
machinery  on  the  farm  and  it  should  be  handled  without  undue 
roughness.  Sudden  jerks  on  the  handle  cause  great  strains  on 
the  bearings  and  reduce  the  life  of  the  machine.  In  starting  the 
separator,  work  uji  speed  gradually  and  turn  the  handle  so  that 
there  is  an  even  pull  all  the  way  around.  The  too  common  prac- 
tice of  leaning  on  the  handle  as  it  goes  down  and  giving  it  a  jerk 
as  it  comes  up  strains  the  bearings  and  wears  the  gears  unevenly. 
A  watch  or  a  pendulum  which  is  furnished  with  some  separators 
may  be  used  to  time  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  handle  per 
minute. 

A  supply  of  good  oil  free  from  grit  is  essential  to  the  separator 
if  it  is  to  run  easily  and  wear  long.  The  operator  should  see 
that  there  is  a  good  supply  of  oil  in  the  oil  cup  and  make  certain 
that  the  oil  system  is  not  clogged.  "With  many  separators  the  oil 
should  be  turned  on  when  the  machine  is  started  and  shut  off 
when  the  separating  is  completed.  Bearings  and  wearing  sur- 
faces should  be  kept  free  from  dirt  and  grit.  Perhaps  the  most 
necessary  caution  in  the  handling  of  a  separator  is  not  to  tamper 
with  it  if  it  is  running  all  right.  The  parts  are  finely  adjusted 
and  needless  experimenting  invites  trouble. 

Operating  the  separator. —  Before  the  machine  is  started  all 
containers  for  the  cream  and  skim  milk  should  be  in  readiness 
and  a  supply  of  hot  water  on  hand.  Also,  the  operator  should 
make  certain  that  the  machine  has  been  put  together  properly  in 
compliance  with  the  manufacturer's  directions.  AMien  the  ma- 
chine has  reached  its  required  speed,  the  milk  faucet  may  be 
turned  on.  In  winter  it  is  advisable  to  run  hot  water  through 
the  separator  before  the  milk  is  started  in  order  to  warm  up 
the  bowl.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  first  milk  Avhicli  passes  through 
will  be  chilled  and  the  separation  less  complete,  for  the  separator 
does  the  best  work  when  the  milk  is  at  a  minimum  temperature 
of  ninety  degrees  F. 

As  soon  as  the  last  of  the  milk  is  running  out  of  the  milk  tank, 


332  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMEKS 

run  through  two  or  three  quarts  of  hot  water,  or,  if  this  is  not 
available,  use  skim  milk.  Running  through  either  the  water  or 
skim  milk  clears  the  bowl  of  all  remaining  cream.  The  use  of 
water  has  the  additional  advantage  of  rinsing  the  bowl  and  other 
parts  which  come  in  contact  with  the  milk,  thereby  making  the 
subsequent  washing  easier. 

Cleaning  and  sterilizing. — As  soon  as  the  separation  is  com- 
pleted the  separator  should  be  taken  apart  and  the  bowl,  together 
Avith  all  other  tinware,  rinsed  with  warm  water.  This  should  be 
followed  by  a  thorough  scrubbing  with  a  stiff  brush  in  hot  water, 
to  which  has  been  added  a  washing  powder,  such  as  sal  soda  or 
one  of  the  dairy  cleaning  powders.  Following  the  washing 
process  the  utensils  should  be  sterilized  if  a  milk  of  low  bacterial 
count  is  to  be  produced.  Sterilizing  may  be  done  with  the  steam 
sterilizer  described  on  page  323,  or  by  boiling  the  utensils  for 
five  minutes. 

The  separator  should  be  cleaned  and  sterilized  after  each  time 
it  is  used. 

MAKING  BUTTER  ON  THE  FARM 

Good  butter  is  not  difficult  to  make  provided  the  operator  fol- 
lows directions  carefully.  To  produce  good  butter  it  is  neces- 
sary to  begin  with  a  clean-flavored  milk.  It  is  customary  in  some 
sections  of  the  country  to  churn  the  whole  milk  in  making  butter, 
but  this  requires  high  temperature  in  churning,  which  injures 
the  quality  of  the  butter  and  causes  a  loss  of  butter  fat  in  the 
buttermilk. 

The  cream  may  be  separated  either  by  means  of  a  centrifugal, 
separator  or  by  gravity.  The  former  method  is  preferable,  as 
less  butter  fat  is  lost  in  the  skim  milk  and  the  separation  is 
accomplished  in  a  few  minutes. 

After  the  cream  is  separated  it  should  be  cooled  in  cold  water 
to  a  temperature  of  fifty  degrees  F.,  if  possible,  and  held  there. 
Cream  from  later  skimmings  should  be  cooled  before  it  is  added 
to  the  cream  which  is  already  cold,  as  the  addition  of  warm 
cream  is  liable  to  sour  it. 

Ripening  the  cream. — About  twelve  or  eighteen  hours  before 
churning  the  cream  should  be  slowly  warmed  to  a  temperature 
of  sixty-five  to  seventy  degrees  F.  (use  thermometer)  to  obtain 
a  uniform  ripening.  The  cream  should  then  stand  at  this  tem- 
perature in  a  place  free  from  odors.  When  it  has  acquired  a 
clean,  mildly  sour  taste  and  a  glossy  appearance  it  is  ready  for 
churning  and  should  be  cooled  quickly  and  held  at  the  churning 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  333 

temperature  for  two  hours.  In  summer  from  fifty  to  fifty-eight 
degrees  F.  is  the  most  favorable  churning  temperature,  and  in 
winter  from  fifty-four  degrees  to  sixty  degrees  F.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  cream  from  becoming  too  sour;  other- 
wise the  butter  will  have  a  sour  flavor  and  poor  keeping  quali- 
ties. Cooling  may  be  accomplished  by  placing  the  can  of  cream 
in  the  cooling  tank  and  stirring  occasionally.  Do  not  put  ice  or 
cold  water  into  the  cream. 

How  to  churn. —  Churning  is  the  next  operation.  There  are 
several  types  of  churns  which  may  be  used  with  good  results, 
but  the  barrel  churn  is  probably  the  best  suited  to  farm  butter- 
making  on  a  small  scale.  It  is  simple,  easy  to  wash  and  operate, 
and  is  inexpensive. 

When  the  cream  is  ready  for  churning,  scalding  w^ater  should 
be  put  into  the  churn  and  the  churn  turned  over  a  few  times. 
This  will  cleanse  the  churn  and  swell  the  pores  of  the  wood  if  it 
has  a  wooden  barrel.  Scalding  should  be  followed  by  rinsing 
with  cold  water.  The  butter  workers,  paddles,  ladles,  and  printer 
should  be  given  the  same  treatment  and  all  but  the  worker  placed 
in  cold  water. 

The  cream  may  now  be  poured  through  a  coarse  strainer  into 
the  churn.  Straining  is  necessary  to  remove  dirt  particles  and 
break  up  any  lumps  in  the  cream.  The  greatest  concussion 
occurs  if  the  churn  is  only  one-third  full.  If  too  full  it  A\all  take 
longer  to  churn.  For  best  results  the  churning  time  should  be 
from  thirty  to  forty  minutes.  If  butter  comes  in  a  shorter  time 
it  indicates  that  the  churning  temperature  was  too  high.  High 
temperatures  and  too  rapid  churning  cause  a  loss  of  butter  fat 
in  the  buttermilk,  salvy  butter,  or  a  butter  which  contains  too 
much  buttermilk  or  too  much  water. 

Coloring  the  butter. — A  small  quantity  of  butter  color  is  gen- 
erally added,  except  in  the  early  spring  or  summer,  when  the 
butter  has  sufficient  natural  color.  The  amount  of  color  required 
will  vary  from  tw^enty  to  thirty-five  drops  per  gallon  of  cream, 
according  to  the  percentage  of  fat  content. 

When  the  color  has  been  added  the  cover  may  be  clamped  on 
and  the  churn  given  a  few  turns.  The  churn  is  then  turned  bot- 
tom side  up  and  the  cork  removed  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape. 
This  should  be  repeated  two  or  three  times  early  in  the  churning. 
The  churn  should  be  turned  at  a  speed  that  will  give  the  greatest 
concussion  or  "  thumping, "  which  is  ordinarily  about  sixty  turns 
to  the  minute.  After  about  twenty  minutes  of  churning,  small 
granules  are  formed  and  on  the  glass  in  the  churn  a  thick  mass 


334  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

will  appear  which  occasionally  breaks  away  from  the  glass,  leav- 
ing it  clean.  After  this  j)oint  the  cream  must  be  watched  closely, 
and  after  every  few  revolutions  of  the  churn  the  lid  should  be 
removed  and  the  butter  granules  examined.  When  the  granules 
are  as  large  as  wheat  grains,  or  when  they  separate  and  rise  to 
the  top  of  the  buttermilk,  stop  churning  and  draw  the  butter- 


FiG.  173. —  Working  butter.     Careful  working  is  very  important  in  making  butter. 


milk  off  through  the  hole  in  the  bottom,  straining  it  to  catch  any 
particles  of  butter. 

Washing,  salting",  and  working  butter. — While  the  buttermilk 
is  draining  off,  prepare  the  wash  water.  Clean  water  at  the 
same  temperature  as  the  buttermilk  (test  with  thermometer) 
and  about  double  the  quantity  will  be  required.  Pour  half  the 
water  into  the  churn,  clamp  on  the  lid  and  give  a  few  turns.  The 
water  is  then  drawn  off  through  the  strainer.  The  remainder 
of  the  water  is  then  added  and  the  butter  washed  again. 

The  butter  worker  should  again  be  scalded  and  then  rinsed 


CAEE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  335 

with  cold  water  until  cool,  to  prevent  sticking.  The  butter 
should  now  be  removed  quickly  from  the  churn  with  a  ladle  and 
paddle  and  placed  on  the  worker.  The  hands  should  not  touch 
the  butter.    ' 

If  weighing  scales  are  available,  weigh  the  butter  before 
placing  it  on  the  worker.  Butter  salt  or  fine  table  salt  is  then 
sprinkled  over  the  butter,  allowing  one  ounce  of  salt  for  every 
pound  of  butter. 

In  working  the  butter,  first  press  it  with  the  lever  into  a  flat 
mass  about  one  inch  thick.  This  mass  is  then  folded  over  upon 
itself  and  again  pressed  out,  not  smeared  or  rubbed.  This 
process,  which  distributes  the  salt  and  works  out  the  moisture, 
should  be  repeated  until  the  butter  breaks  when  bent  at  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees.  Overworked  butter  has  a  salv}^  body  and 
a  greasy  appearance.  Underworked  butter  is  generall}''  brittle, 
gritty,  with  undissolved  salt,  and  mottled  in  color.  These  unde- 
sirable qualities  reduce  the  palatability  and  market  value  of  the 
butter. 

Butter  packages. —  Butter  intended  for  home  use  is  generally 
packed  in  glazed  earthenware  crocks.  If  intended  for  sale,  it 
should  be  packed  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  local  mar- 
ket. Rectangular  one-pound  prints  in  cartons  are  generally  pre- 
ferred where  butter  is  offered  for  sale,  and  such  packages  are 
sanitary  and  easily  handled. 

In  making  prints  the  butter  is  placed  on  a  flat  surface  and  the 
i:)rinter  pressed  down  on  it  until  completely  filled.  The  surplus 
butter  is  then  scraped  off  and  the  print  pressed  out  on  parch- 
ment paper  for  wrapping.  After  wrapping,  the  butter  should 
be  placed  in  a  refrigerator.  All  utensils  used  in  the  butter- 
making  should  be  thoroughly  washed  with  hot  water,  a  dairy 
cleanser,  and  a  stiff  brush,  then  rinsed  w^ith  hot  water. 

MAKING  CHEESE  ON  THE  FARM 

American  cheese. —  In  making  cheese,  trouble  from  the  devel- 
opment of  undesirable  bacteria  in  the  milk  may  be  avoided  by 
using  milk  freshly  drawn  from  the  cows.  To  remove  the  animal 
heat  and  odor  from  the  milk,  it  should  be  run  over  an  aerator  or 
poured  slow^ly  from  one  container  to  another  in  a  room  where 
the  air  is  pure.  When  this  process  has  been  completed,  the  milk 
is  placed  in  a  wash  boiler  or  vat. 

If  a  strong  color  is  desired,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  cheese 
color  to  every  sixteen  gallons  of  milk,  first  mixing  the  color  in 
a  dipper  of  milk  before  adding  to  the  main  supply.     Next  add 


336  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

rennet  extract  to  the  milk.  The  rennet,  which  is  added  at  the 
rate  of  one  ounce  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk,  is  first  mixed 
with  a  half-dipper  of  cold  water  and  then  poured  into  the  milk. 
If  rennet  tablets  are  used,  add  one  small  tablet  (about  the  size  of 
a  dime)  to  five  gallons  of  milk,  or  one  large  tablet  (the  size  of  a 
quarter)  to  twenty-five  gallons.  The  tablets  are  first  dissolved 
in  cold  water  and  then  added  to  the  milk.  These  tablets  can  be 
obtained  from  a  drug  store  or  dairy-supply  house. 

The  milk  should  be  between  the  temperatures  of  eighty-six 
degrees  and  ninety  degrees  F.  when  the  rennet  is  put  in.  Stir 
gently  for  two  or  three  minutes  after  adding  the  rennet,  and 
then  let  it  stand  until  the  curd  is  ready  to  cut.  The  milk  should 
begin  to  curdle  in  ten  or  twelve  minutes  and  should  be  tested 
frequently  to  ascertain  whether  the  curd  is  ready  for  cutting. 
Testing  is  done  by  pushing  the  finger  into  the  curd  at  an  angle 
of  forty-five  degrees  and  then  raising  the  finger.  If  the  curd 
breaks  clean  across  the  finger,  leaving  no  flakes,  it  is  ready. 

Cutting. —  If  possible  use  a  regular  cheese  knife,  one  with  a 
horizontal  blade  and  one  w^itli  a  perpendicular  blade,  in  cutting 
the  curd.  First  cut  the  long  Avay  of  the  vat,  then  crosswise, 
until  the  curd  is  in  one-half  inch  cubes. 

Stir  the  curd  gently  for  three  minutes,  heat  to  ninety-eight  or 
one  hundred  degrees  F.,  stirring  while  heating,  and  then  hold 
for  forty  minutes.  When  the  curd  shows  fine  silk-like  threads 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  one  inch  long  when  rubbed  on  a 
clean  hot  iron  the  salt  should  be  applied.  Usually  three  ounces 
of  salt  for  every  ten  pounds  of  curd  is  sufficient.  Too  much  salt 
makes  the  cheese  dry  and  retards  curing,  Avhile  too  little  salt 
may  cause  rapid  ripening  and  ''off"  flavors.  The  salt  should  be 
thoroughly  stirred  through  the  curd  and  allowed  to  dissolve 
before  the  curd  is  put  into  the  mold. 

Molding. — The  mold  is  filled  by  taking  double  handfuls  of 
curd  and  pressing  gently  until  the  mold  is  full  and  Avell  rounded. 
Any  tin  or  wooden  receptacle  is  satisfactory^  for  molding,  pro- 
vided there  are  holes  in  it  to  let  the  whey  out.  The  ordinary 
size  of  mold  used  is  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter  and  three 
inches  thick.  After  the  cheese  has  been  in  the  mold  a  short  time, 
remove,  turn  it  upside  down  and  replace  it  in  the  mold.  After 
putting  on  the  mold  cover,  the  cheese  is  ready  for  the  press. 

Pressing. — A  simple  but  efficient  cheese  press  can  be  made  out 
of  an  old  wagon  tongue.  Nail  a  two-by-four  on  the  wall  about 
three  feet  from  the  floor.  The  cheese  mold  is  then  placed  on  a 
strong  box  a  few  feet  from  the  wall  and  the  wagon  tongue  rested 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  337 

over  the  top  of  the  cheese  mold  with  the  heavy  end  caught  under 
the  two-by-four,  A  weight  consisting  of  a  bucket  full  of  stone  is 
then  hung  over  the  free  end  of  the  wagon  tongue  to  add  pressure. 

The  cheese  is  then  placed  in  the  press,  but  only  one-half  of 
full  pressure  is  applied.  This  is  done  by  moving  the  weight  to  a 
point  midway  between  the  press  and  the  end  of  the  tongue. 
After  a  few  hours  the  cheese  is  removed,  placed  in  warm  water 
for  a  few  minutes,  wiped  dry,  and  rubbed  smooth  with  the  hand. 
A  linen  cloth  six  inches  wide  and  long  enough  to  go  round  the 
cheese  is  applied,  and  the  edges  of  the  cloth  are  folded  down 
over  the  sides.  Circular  jjieces  of  cloth  are  placed  on  the  top  and 
bottom,  and  the  cheese  is  replaced  in  the  mold  and  put  under  the 
press.    Full  pressure  is  applied  for  twenty  hours. 

Curing". — A  good  place  to  cure  cheese  is  on  a  shelf  in  the  cellar. 
The  cheese  should  be  turned  and  rubbed  with  the  palm  of  the 
hand  every  day  for  a  week  or  two ;  after  that  twice  a  week.  It 
should  also  be  wiped  occasionally  with  a  cloth  and  warm  water. 
The  temperature  of  the  cellar  should  be  from  thirty-five  to  sixty- 
five  degrees  F.  and  the  air  fairly  moist. 

The  cheese  will  be  ready  for  market  after  tw^o  to  four  months 
of  curing.  The  lighter  it  is  salted,  the  sooner  it  will  be  ready ; 
also,  the  more  it  is  cooked,  the  slower  it  will  ripen  and  the  longer 
it  will  keep. 

Cottage  cheese. —  To  make  cottage  cheese,  place  the  desired 
amount  of  skim  milk  in  a  pail  or  a  "shotgun"  can,  warm  to 
seventy-five  degrees  F.  and  allow  it  to  stand  at  that  temperature 
until  curdled.  A  thermometer  should  always  be  used  to  deter- 
mine the  temperature.  The  temperature  can  be  controlled  by 
keeping  the  can  of  milk  in  a  tub  or  sink,  filled  with  water  of  the 
same  temperature. 

The  time  required  for  curdling  will  depend  upon  the  freshness 
of  the  milk..  When  a  starter  or  good  sour  milk  is  available,  a 
better  and  more  uniform  cheese  can  be  made  and  the  time  for 
curdling  lessened.  About  a  cupful  of  starter  or  good  sour  milk 
to  the  gallon  of  skim  milk  is  sufficient.  AVith  that  quantity  of 
starter  the  skim  milk  will  curdle  in  from  ten  to  fifteen  hours, 
while  without  a  starter  fresh  milk  may  not  curdle  for  twenty- 
four  hours  or  longer.  The  greater  the  quantity  of  starter,  the 
sooner  curdling  will  take  place.  As  soon  as  a  firm,  smooth  curd 
has  been  formed  it  is  ready  for  cutting. 

Cutting,  heating,  and  stirring.— The  curd  is  cut  into  one-inch 
or  two-inch  squares  with  a  knife.  The  temperature  of  the  cur- 
dled milk  is  then  raised  to  one  hundred  degrees  F.  and  held  for 


338  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FARMERS 

half  an  hour,  stirring  gently  from  time  to  time.  The  degree  of 
heating  largely  determines  the  dryness  of  the  cheese ;  the  higher 
the  temperature,  the  drier  the  cheese. 

Draining. — The  curd  is  then  poured  into  a  cheesecloth  sack  or 
into  a  piece  of  draining  cloth  thrown  over  a  pail.  If  a  pail  is 
used,  pour  out  the  whey  occasionally  so  that  draining  will  con- 
tinue. In  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  curd  \^dll  become  mushy 
and  will  drain  more  slowly.  The  sides  of  the  cloth  may  then  be 
raised  and  lowered  every  few  minutes  to  hasten  draining.  When 
the  curd  is  rather  firm  and  the  whey  has  nearly  ceased  to  flow, 
it  is  ready  for  salting. 

Salting. —  Cheese  may  be  salted  to  suit  the  taste.  Usually 
from  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls  to  the  gallon  of  milk  is  about  the 
quantity  desired.  The  salt  may  be  sprinkled  over  the  curd  and 
worked  in  with  a  spoon  or  paddle. 

Making  cheese  with  rennet  or  pepsin. —  Cottage  cheese  made 
with  rennet,  a  junket  tablet,  or  pepsin  has  a  finer  and  more  uni- 
form texture  and  requires  less  time  and  attention  in  making. 
The  time  required  for  curdling  should  be  from  sixteen  to  eigh- 
teen hours.  If  curdling  takes  place  sooner  the  cheese  will  be  too 
dry  and  too  firm.  The  process  of  making  is  the  same  as  already 
described,  except  that  the  milk  is  warmed  to  eighty  degrees  F. 
and  allowed  to  remain  at  that  temperature  for  five  or  six  hours, 
at  which  time  two  or  three  drops  of  liquid  rennet  per  gallon  of 
milk  may  be  dissolved  in  a  tablespoonful  of  cold  water  and 
stirred  into  the  milk.  If  powdered  rennet  is  not  available,  one- 
eighth  of  a  junket  tablet  to  a  gallon  of  milk  may  be  dissolved  in 
a  tablespoonful  of  cold  water  and  stirred  into  the  milk.  Pow- 
dered pepsin  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  a  quantity  that 
will  remain  upon  the  point  of  a  penknife  being  dissolved  in  a 
tablespoonful  of  cold  water  and  then  mixed  with  the  milk. 

When  rennet,  a  junket  tablet,  or  pepsin  is  used,  the  coagulum 
is  placed  in  a  drain  cloth  without  cutting  or  heating.  A  finer 
and  heavier  draining  cloth  is  necessary  because  of  the  fineness 
of  the  curd.    The  cheese  is  salted  as  already  described. 

Pasteurization  of  the  milk. — AVhile  for  small-scale  operation 
the  pasteurization  of  skim  milk  may  not  always  be  practicable, 
it  permits  a  better  control  of  the  fermentation,  increases  the 
yield  of  cheese,  and  renders  the  product  safe  from  disease, 
producing  organisms.  With  pasteurized  milk  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  use  a  starter. 

Quality. —  Sweet  or  sour  cream  added  to  cottage  cheese  makes 
a  richer  and  more  palatable  product.    If  the  cheese  is  to  be  kept 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FAEM  339 

for  several  days  it  should  be  stored  in  a  cold  place  and  in  an 
earthenware  or  glass  vessel  rather  than  in  one  of  tin  or  wood. 

THE   BABCOCK  TEST^ 

The  Babcock  test  for  fat  in  dairy  products,  named  for  its 
inventor,  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  chief  chemist  of  the  Wisconsin 
agricultural  experiment  station,  is  based  upon  the  fact  that 
strong  sulphuric  acid  ^\411  dissolve  the  serum  solids  in  milk  and 
set  the  fat  free  from  its  emulsion.  In  conducting  the  test  the 
charge  is  placed  in  a  specially  constructed  test  bottle  and  mixed 
with  the  proper  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  acid  performs 
other  functions  than  the  simple  solution  of  the  serum  solids. 
Much  heat  is  developed  by  its  action,  and  this  causes  the  fat 
globules  to  lose  their  individuality  and  run  together,  a  condition 
which  greatly  facilitates  the  separation  from  the  serum.  This 
separation  is  still  further  accelerated  by  the  increase  in  specific 
gravity  of  the  sermn  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  heav}^  sul- 
phuric acid.  When  the  solution  of  the  serum  solids  is  effected, 
the  complete  separation  of  the  fat  and  serum  is  accomplished  by 
whirling  in  a  centrifuge.  The  fat  is  gradually  driven  into  the 
graduated  neck  of  the  bottle  and  the  percentage  read  directly. 

Test  bottles. — The  Babcock  test  bottle  for  milk  consists  of  a 
body  holding  about  fifty  cubic  centimeters  and  the  neck  grad- 
uated so  that  the  percentage  of  fat  may  be  read  directly.  Seven- 
teen and  one-half  cubic  centimeters  is  used  in  the  test,  and  this 
vohmie  of  average  milk  weighs  almost  exactly  eighteen  grams. 

Milk  pipette. — The  charge  for  the  Babcock  test  for  milk  is 
measured  rather  than  weighed,  the  measuring  instrument  being 
a  pipette  graduated  to  deliver  17.5  cubic  centimeters  of  milk. 
These  pipettes,  filled  to  their  graduation  mark,  hold  17.6  cubic 
centimeters.  The  extra  0.1  cubic  centimeter  is  allowed  for  the 
milk  which  clings  to  the  walls.  Pipettes  may  be  obtained  which 
conformi  to  the  requirements  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards. 

Acid  measure. —  For  farm  testing  this  may  be  a  simple  glass 
cylinder  graduated  to  deliver  17.5  cubic  centimeters. 

The  centrifugal  machine. — This  is  commonly  called  the  Bab- 
cock tester,  and  various  types  are  on  the  market,  ranging  from 
the  small,  two-bottle  hand  tester  to  the  large  steam  turbine  or 
electric  tester,  accommodating  twenty-four  or  more  bottles. 
They  all  consist  mainly  of  a  horizontal  revolving  disk  or  wheel 

'In  preparing  this  material  free  use  has  been  made  of  Bulletin  A-12,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  by  Roscoe  H.  Shaw. 


340  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

provided  with  swinging  sockets  to  hold  the  bottles.  At  rest  these 
sockets  allow  the  bottles  to  stand  upright,  but  when  in  motion, 
the  centrifugal  force  causes  the  sockets  to  swing  outward,  bring- 
ing the  bottles  to  a  horizontal  position,  Avith  the  necks  toward  the 
center.  AMiere  steam  pressure  is  available,  a  steam  turbine 
tester  is  strongly  recommended  for  the  reason  that  it  maintains 
a  uniform  motion  under  a  definite  pressure  and  at  the  same  time 
the  steam  keeps  the  bottles  warm  and  supplies  the  hot  water 
required.  "WHiatever  kind  of  tester  is  used,  it  must  be  firmly 
secured  to  a  rigid  support.  There  must  be  no  shaking  or 
trembling  of  the  tester  when  in  motion. 

Acid. —  The  acid  used  in  the  Babcock  test  is  the  commercial 
sulphuric  acid,  sometimes  called  oil  of  vitriol,  and  should  have 
a  specific  gravity  of  between  1.82  and  1.83.  It  should  be  kept 
in  glass  bottles  or  jugs,  preferably  with  glass  stoppers. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  an  extremely  corrosive  liquid,  which  attacks 
the  skin,  the  clothing,  wood,  and  most  of  the  common  metals. 
Should  the  acid  be  spilled  on  the  clothing,  it  should  be  imme- 
diately washed  off  with  plenty  of  water,  and  ammonia  water 
applied;  this  in  turn  must  also  be  washed  off.  Unless  the  acid 
is  washed  off  immediately  after  contact  Avith  the  skin,  severe 
burns  will  result. 

Testing  strength  of  acid. —  As  already  mentioned,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  sulphuric  acid  used  should  be  between  1.82  and 
1.83.  It  is  much  better  to  purchase  it  guaranteed  of  the  proper 
strength  than  to  bother  with  diluting  the  stronger  acid. 
Creamery  supply  houses  handle  acid  guaranteed  to  be  of  the 
proper  strength,  and  if  kept  in  well-stoppered  containers  it  will 
not  change. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  THE  BABCOCK  TEST  WITH  MILK 

Measuring  the  charge. —  In  preparing  the  sample  for  the  test, 
the  milk  is  poured  from  one  container  to  another  two  or  three 
times.  The  tip  of  the  pipette  is  immediately  inserted  and  the 
milk  sucked  up  Avith  the  mouth  until  it  reaches  a  point  Avell  above 
the  graduation  mark  on  the  stem;  the  dry  forefinger  is  then 
quickly  placed  over  the  mouth  of  the  pipette.  By  slightly  relax- 
ing the  pressure  of  the  finger  the  milk  is  alloAved  to  floAV  doAvn 
until  it  just  reaches  the  mark.  The  tip  of  the  pipette  is  noAV 
placed  in  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle  and  the  milk  alloAved  to  floAV 
sloAvly  down  the  side.  If  the  bottle  and  pipette  are  held  upright, 
the  neck  of  the  bottle  may  clog  up  and  some  of  the  milk  run  over 
the  top.    Care  must  be  taken  that  none  of  the  milk  is  lost  during 


CARE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FARM  341 

the  operation.  When  nearly  all  the  milk  has  run  out  of  the 
pipette,  the  last  drop  is  forced  out  with  a  puff  of  the  breath. 

Adding  the  acid. —  The  temperature  of  the  milk  when  the  acid 
is  added  should  be  between  sixty  degrees  and  seventy  degrees  F., 
and  the  acid  should  be  at  about  the  same  temperature.  Seven- 
teen and  one-half  cubic  centimeters  of  the  acid  is  measured  out, 
and,  with  the  bottle  held  at  an  angle,  carefully  poured  down  the 
side,  the  l)ottle  being  turned  slowly  at  the  same  time  so  that  any 
milk  adliering  to  the  neck  will  be  washed  doAvn. 

Mixing  the  acid  and  the  milk. —  The  acid  is  now  mixed  with 
the  milk  by  giving  a  combined  rotary  motion  and  gently  shaking 
with  the  hand  grasping  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  wath  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  held  away  from  the  operator.  When  once  connnenced 
the  mixing  must  not  be  interrupted  until  the  solution  is  complete. 
The  first  effect  of  the  acid  on  the  milk  is  a  curdling,  which  is 
subsequently  dissolved.  As  the  solution  progresses  the  color 
changes  first  to  a  light  yellow,  then  to  dark  yellow,  then  through 
various  shades  of  violet  to  brown  and  finally  to  dark  brown,  if 
the  acid  is  of  the  proper  strength  and  the  milk  and  acid  are  at 
the  right  temperature  when  united.  Too  strong  or  too  warm  acid 
produces  a  dense  black.  Common  errors  of  beginners  are  failure 
to  mix  the  acid  thoroughly  with  the  milk  and  to  continue  the 
shaking  until  the  solution  is  complete.  A  good  plan  is  to  shake 
the  bottle  for  a  minute  or  so  after  the  solution  is  apparently 
complete. 

Centrifuging  the  bottles. —  The  bottles  are  now  placed  in  the 
sockets  of  the  centrifuge,  taking  care  that  they  are  equally  dis- 
tributed about  the  wheel  or  disk  so  that  the  equilibrium  of  the 
latter  is  not  disturbed.  An  even  number  of  bottles  should  always 
be  whirled.  Should  an  odd  number  of  tests  be  made  a  test  bottle 
filled  with  water  may  be  used  to  balance  the  machine.  When  the 
l)ottles  are  in  place,  the  tester  is  covered  in  order  to  keep  the 
bottles  from  getting  cold  and  to  protect  the  operator  from  flying 
glass  and  acid  should  anj^  of  the  bottles  break.  The  tester  is 
now  set  in  motion  and  the  bottles  whirled  four  to  five  minutes 
at  proper  speed.  This  will  be  sufficient  to  bring  practically  all 
the  fat  to  the  surface.  In  cold  weather,  if  a  hand  tester  is  used, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  pour  hot  water  into  the  jacket  of  the  tester 
to  keep  the  bottles  warm. 

Speed  of  centrifuge. — Farrington  and  AVoll  have  calculated 
the  proper  speed  of  testers  with  wheels  of  different  diameters  to 
be  as  follows: 


342  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


DIAMETER  OF  WHEEL  IN  INCHES 

REVOLUTIONS  OF  WHEEL  PER  MINUTE 

10 

1,074 

12 

980 

14 

909 

16 

848 

18 

800 

20 

759 

22 

724 

24 

693 

Adding  the  water. —  Hot  water  is  then  added  to  the  bottles 
until  the  contents  come  nearly  to  the  lower  part  of  the  neck. 
The  whirling  is  then  repeated  for  two  minutes.  Hot  water  is 
again  added  until  the  fat  reaches  a  point  below  the  highest 
graduation  mark  on  the  neck.  It  must  never  reach  the  top  mark, 
or  some  of  the  fat  may  be  lost.  This  time  the  water  should  be 
dropped  directly  into  the  fat  in  order  to  clear  the  fat  of  the  light, 
flocculent  material  which  may  be  entangled  in  it  and  which  would 
later  interfere  ^^^th  the  reading  of  the  test.  The  whirling  is 
repeated  for  another  minute.  The  temperature  at  which  the 
readings  are  taken  is  between  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees 
and  one  hundred  and  forty  degrees  F.,  and  this  should  be  borne 
in  mind  when  the  water  is  added,  the  object  being  to  add  the 
water  at  such  a  temperature  that  the  temperature  of  the  fat  at 
the  close  of  the  last  whirling  will  be  between  these  two  figures. 
The  water  used  should  preferably  be  soft  water  or  condensed 
steam. 

Reading  the  percentage. —  Provided  the  test  has  been  success- 
fully conducted,  the  fat  will  be  in  a  clear,  yellowish  liquid 
column  sharply  separated  from  the  clear  and  nearly  colorless 
acid  solution  inunediately  below  it  and  with  no  foam  on  top. 
The  bottles  should  be  kept  warm  either  in  the  tester  or  in 
warm  water  until  read,  and  the  readings  should  always  be 
made  at  between  one  hundred  and  thirty  degrees  and  one  hun- 
dred and  forty  degrees  F.  The  fat  at  this  temperature, 
if  other  conditions  have  been  correct,  ^dll  have  a  well-defined 
meniscus  at  both  the  top  and  the  bottom.  The  readings  are  made 
from  the  extreme  bottom  of  the  lower  meniscus  to  the  extreme 
top  of  the  upper  meniscus.  An  ordinary  pair  of  dividers  is 
useful  in  making  this  reading.  The  points  are  placed  at  the 
upper  and  lower  limits,  then  lowered  until  one  point  is  at  the 
0  mark ;  the  other  point  will  indicate  on  the  scale  at  the  correct" 
percentage  for  the  sample  tested. 


CAKE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FAEM 


343 


8 


a 

b 1 


— C 


In  some  steam  testers  where  the  exhaust  steam  escapes  into 
the  jacket  and  no  ventilation  is  provided,  the  temperature  of  the 
bottles  will  be  too  high.  In  such  case,  the  bottles  must  be  allowed 
to  cool  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  to  one  hundred  and  forty 
degrees  F.  bj^  placing  them  in 
water  at  that  temperature  for 
several  minutes  before  making 
the  reading. 

Imperfect  tests. — If  the  f ore- 
going  directions  have  been 
strictly  followed,  a  perfect  test 
should  result.  It  is  not  to  be 
expected,  however,  that  the  be- 
ginner will  always  meet  with 
success.  The  next  two  para- 
gra])hs  may  be  helpful  in  find- 
ing the  trouble. 

An  imperfect  test  is  caused 
by  one  of  three  things:  (1) 
Foam  on  the  fat  colunm  ob- 
scuring the  upper  meniscus; 
(2)  a  dark-colored  fat  colunm 
containing  dark  particles  and 
with  dark  i^articles  obscuring 
the  lower  meniscus ;  (3)  a  light- 
colored  fat  colunm  containing 
white,  curdy  material  ol)scur- 
ing  the  lower  meniscus. 

The  first  is  caused  by  using 
hard  water.  Any  one  or  a  com- 
bination of  the  following  may 
cause  the  second  trouble :  The 
acid  was  too  strong;  too  much 
acid  was  used;  the  acid  was 
too  warm  when  added  to  the 
milk;  the  milk  was  too  warm 
when  the  acid  was  added;  the 
acid  was  dropped  directly  into 
the  milk;  the  mixing  of  the 
acid  and  the  milk  was  inter- 
rupted before  the  solution  was  Fig.  174.— Method  of  reading  Babcock 
complete  ;  or  the  acid  and  milk  test  bottles,     in  reading  fat  column 

,,  ,    .         .         T    .         ,  in  milk  testing,  read  from  a  to  a,  not 

were  allowed  to  stand  too  long  a  to  6,  nor  d  to  c. 


d 


4 


344  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

in  the  test  bottle  before  being  mixed.  The  third  trouble 
is  caused  by  one  or  more  of  the  following:  The  acid  was 
too  weak;  too  little  acid  was  used;  the  acid  was  too  cold  when 
added  to  the  milk;  the  milk  was  too  cold  when  the  acid  was 
added ;  or  the  mixing  was  not  continued  long  enough  to  dissolve 
all  the  serum  solids. 

TESTING  CREAM  FOR  FAT 

Cream  is  tested  by  the  Babcock  test  in  much  the  same  manner 
as  milk,  but  there  are  some  modifications  that  must  be  observed. 
The  range  of  fat  in  cream,  and  consequently  the  specific  gravity, 
is  much  greater  than  in  milk,  so  that  17.5  cubic  centimeters  do 
not  necessarily  represent  eighteen  grams,  as  in  the  case  of  milk. 
Cream  also  varies  in  consistence,  some  being  thin  and  some 
thick ;  therefore  in  some  cases  much  more  would  adhere  to  the 
walls  of  the  pipette  than  in  others.  For  these  reasons  cream 
can  not  be  accurately  measured.  The  charge  for  the  test  must 
be  weighed  into  the  test  bottle. 

Cream-test  bottles. —  The  cream-test  bottles  used  in  the  Bab- 
cock test  are  of  various  designs.  Those  conforming  to  the 
requirements  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Standards  differ 
from  milk  bottles  only  in  the  graduations  and  in  the  length  and 
diameter  of  the  neck.  Test  bottles  are  made  for  both  an  eighteen- 
gram  and  a  nine-gram  charge. 

Cream-test  balances. —  Several  types  of  balances  designed  for 
weighing  cream  charges  are  on  the  market.  The  small  torsion 
balances  prove  to  be  very  satisfactory  if  care  is  taken  that  the 
important  metal  parts  are  not  allowed  to  rust.  Balances  should 
be  tested  for  sensitiveness  from  time  to  time  and  should  always 
be  kept  in  perfect  condition. 

Preparing"  cream  for  testing. —  In  testing  cream  or  milk  the 
small  quantity  taken  for  the  test  must  be  truly  representative. 
No  matter  how  carefully  the  test  is  carried  out,  if  the  charge 
taken  does  not  accurately  represent  the  cream  or  milk  to  be 
tested,  the  results  will  be  worthless.  The  preparation  of  cream 
for  testing  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  of  milk.  The  fat 
must  be  evenly  distributed,  and  if  there  are  no  lumps  this  can 
be  accomplished  by  pouring  from  one  receptacle  to  another, 
warming  the  cream  slightly,  if  cold.  If  lumps  are  present,  it 
has  been  advised  to  pass  the  cream  through  a  fine  sieve,  rubbing 
the  lumps  through  Avith  the  fingers  and  then  mixing  as  usual. 
If  the  cream  has  stood  for  some  time  in  the  sample  jar,  the  top 
may  have  become  hard,  leathery,  and  difficult  to  remove.    In  this 


CAEE  OF  MILK  OX  THE  FARM 


345' 


IG 

15 

14 

13 

\Z 

II 

10 

3 

6 

7 

6 

5 


a 


case,  the  jars  should  be  set  in 
warm  water  until  the  contents 
have  reached  one  hundred  de- 
grees to  one  hundred  and  ten 
degrees  F.,  when  the  cream  will 
be  soft  and  can  be  easily  re- 
moved. 

Weighing  the  charge. —  After 
the  sample  has  become  homo- 
geneous throughout,  the  charge 
is  quickly  weighed  into  the  test 
bottle.  The  Aveight  of  the  charge 
depends  upon  the  style  of  bottle 
used,  but  the  nine-gram  bottle 
is  reconunended.  A  pipette  is 
useful  in  conveying  the  cream 
to  the  test  bottle,  as  the  flow  can 
be  easily  controlled  and  checked 
on  the  drop  Avhen  the  pointer  of 
the  balance  indicates  that  the  cor- 
rect quantity  has  been  run  in. 
This  weight  must  be  exact,  and 
some  experience  is  necessary  be- 
fore the  charges  can  be  quickly 
and  accurately  weighed. 

Completing  the  test. —  Instead 
of  adding  a  measured  quantity 
of  sulphuric  acid  to  the  cream 
in  the  test  bottle,  as  is  done  with 
milk,  the  best  way  is  to  add  the 
acid  until  the  mixture  assumes 
the  color  of  coffee  to  which  cream 
has  been  added.^  The  quantity 
of  acid  required  to  produce  this 
color  varies  with  the  percentag'' 
of  fat  in  the  cream.  If  the  cream 
and  acid,  when  mixed,  are  about 
seventy  degrees  F.,  about  one- 
quarter  or  one-half  of  the  regu- 
lar quantity  (four  to  eight  cubic 
centimeters)  of  acid  (specific 
gravity  1.82  to  1.83),  depending 


^O.  F.  Hunziker  and  TT  C.  Mills,  Testing  Fk?.  175.— Method  of  reading  fat  col- 
Cream  for  Butter  Fat.  Indiana  Agricultural  umn  in  cream  test  bottle.  Read 
Experiment  Station  Bui.  145,  June,  1910.  from  d  to  c,  not  to  a  or  6. 


—  d 


346  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PKACTICAL  FARMERS 

upon  the  percentage  of  fat,  will  be  required  for  a  nine-gram 
charge.  After  adding  the  acid  to  the  cream,  the  procedure  up  to 
the  reading  of  the  percentage  is  exactly  the  same  as  in  the  milk 
test.  After  the  final  whirling,  the  test  bottles  are  submerged  to 
a  point  above  the  fat  column  in  water  at  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  degrees  to  one  hundred  and  forty  degrees  F.  in  a  suitable 
tank.  After  remaining  in  the  tank  for  about  fifteen  minutes 
they  are  removed  and  the  readings  quickly  made.  The  impor- 
tant difference  between  reading  the  cream  test  and  the  milk  test 
is  that  in  the  cream  test  the  fat  column  included  is  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  lower  meniscus  to  the  bottom,  not  the  top,  of  the 
upper  meniscus. 

Some  operators  prefer  to  destroy  the  upper  meniscus  by 
dropping  into  the  bottle  at  this  point  a  few  drops  of  a  liquid  in 
which  the  fat  is  not  soluble.  Glymol  (petrolatum  liquidum, 
U.  S.  P.),  known  commercially  as  white  mineral  oil,  gives  satis- 
factory results  and  may  be  purchased  at  almost  any  drug  store. 
If  the  fat  column  is  read  with  the  upper  meniscus  intact,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  eye  is  on  a  level  with  the  points  on  the 
scale  at  which  the  readings  are  made;  otherwise  an  error  will 
be  introduced. 

TESTING  SKIM  MILK  FOR  FAT 

In  general  skim  milk  is  tested  Avith  the  Babcock  test  in  the 
same  manner  as  w^hole  milk,  but  the  test  does  not  apply  to  it 
with  the  same  degree  of  accuracy.  The  reason  for  this  is  per- 
haps as  follows :  The  fat  in  milk,  as  already  shown,  exists  as 
fat  globules  of  different  sizes.  In  the  process  of  skimming, 
either  by  the  centrifugal  separator  or  by  gravity,  the  force  tend- 
ing to  separate  the  fat  from  the  other  milk  constituents  acts 
more  strongly  upon  the  larger  globules ;  consequently^  there  is  a 
much  larger  proportion  of  small  globules  in  skim  milk  than  in 
the  Avhole  milk.  In  the  Babcock  test  the  fat  is  driven  into  the 
neck  of  the  test  bottle  by  centrifugal  force.  Here  again  the  force 
acts  more  strongly  upon  the  larger  globules.  Some  of  the 
smaller  globules  never  reach  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle.  This 
is  compensated  for  in  testing  whole  milk  by  the  liberal  reading 
of  the  fat  column,  that  is,  by  reading  from  the  bottom  of  the 
lower  meniscus  to  the  top  of  the  upper  one.  In  skim  milk,  how- 
over,  since  most  of  the  globules  are  small,  a  greater  proportion 
of  them  fail  to  be  driven  into  the  neck  of  the  test  bottle ;  conse- 
quently the  reading  is   too  low  and  does  not  give   the  true 


I 


CAEE  OF  MILK  ON  THE  FAEM 


347 


percentage  of  fat.  The  skiin-niilk  test  is  valuable  for  testing  the 
completeness  of  the  skinnning,  but  its  results  must  not  be 
interpreted  too  strictly. 

The  skim-milk  test  bottle  differs  from  the  whole-milk  test 
bottle  in  having  two  necks,  one  of  small  bore  graduated  to  read 
hundredths  per  cent  for  the  fat  column,  and  one  extending  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  for  filling. 

Seventeen  and  one-half  cubic  centimeters  of  the  skim  milk  are 
placed  in  the  test  bottle  through  the  filling  tube.  Twenty  cubic 
centimeters  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added  in  two  portions  of  ten 
cubic  centimeters  each,  shaking  after  each  addition.  Great  care 
nmst  be  taken,  while  shaking,  to  be  sure  that  no  particles  reach 
the  fat  tube;  otherwise  it  will  become  plugged  and  the  test 
ruined.  The  test  bottles  are  placed  in  the  tester  with  the  filling 
tubes  toward  the  center.  The  first  whirling  is  continued  one  or 
two  minutes  longer  than  when  testing  whole  milk.  As  in  whole- 
milk  testing,  hot  water  is  added  in  two  portions,  the  second  one 
bringing  the  fat  about  half-w^ay  up  the  tube.  The  reading  should 
be  made  immediatelv  after  the  final  whirling.    If  the  fat  is  in 


' 

^ItfU^i^^iiin^'" 

^W■B'^^5^r5  <--^^' "  "i*^!!^*^ 

&bMi  BRnVwBBHJ^^S  i   s    tSHiBjjim^i 

S^AdSSBKuBBKS! 

H 

^^^^^Krvv^^u^v^'jM^^^^H 

1 

Fig.  176. —  Modern  barns  and  buildings  on  Davey  Experimental  Farm  of  the  Federal 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  at  Beltsville,  Md. 


348  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  lower  part  of  the  tube  it  may  be  forced  into  the  graduated 
part  by  the  pressure  of  the  finger  at  the  mouth  of  the  filling  tube. 
Some  skim-milk  test  bottles  have  the  mouth  of  the  fat  tube 
enlarged  to  receive  a  rubber  stopper  which  may  be  used  to  adjust 
the  fat  column  for  reading. 


CHAPTER    XVII 

SHEEP 
By  Eussell  \V.  Duck,  B.S.A.,  M.S.* 

Types  and  breeds. —  There  are  three  principal  classes  of 
sheep,  (1)  fine-wool;  (2)  medium-wool;   (3)  long-wool. 

Fine-wool  breeds. —  The  fine-wool  breeds  are  the  American 
and  Delaine  Merinos  and  the  Eambouillets.  All  fine-wools  trace 
back  to  Spanish  origin,  where  they  were  raised  as  early  as  the 
eighth  century.  This  class  of  sheep  is  well  adapted  to  large 
open  tracts  of  land,  as  they  flock  well,  and  their  dense  wool  is 
excellent  protection  against  the  elements.  Fine-wool  ewes  are 
used  some  for  early  lamb  production,  as  they  can  sometimes  be 
mated  in  the  spring.  In  general  people  living  on  small  farms, 
who  raise  only  a  few  sheep,  have  found  it  more  profitable  to 
raise  either  pure  bred  or  grade  mutton  sheep  instead  of  fine- 
wools. 

The  American  Merino  was  produced  principally  in  New  Eng- 
land, by  selection.  The  fineness  of  fiber,  folds  of  skin  and 
mutton  qualities  determine  the  class  in  which  a  merino  belongs. 
Extremely  wrinkled  skin  is  always  associated  with  very  dense, 
fine  fiber,  and  lack  of  mutton  characteristics.  Merinos  of  this 
class  are  called  type  A;  they  usually  carry  a  large  per  cent  of 
Spanish  and  American  Merino  blood.  Those  having  folds  over 
the  neck  and  shoulder,  smooth  bodied  with  heavier  fleshing  and 
more  open  fleece  are  classed  as  type  B ;  these  also  are  largely  of 
Spanish  and  American  extraction.  C  type  Merinos  are  prac- 
tically free  from  folds  in  their  skin;  their  wool  is  not  so  fine  and 
dense,  and  they  carry  considerably  more  mutton ;  Rambouillets 
and  Delaines  are  the  breeds  which  make  up  this  type. 

Rambouillets,  like  all  other  fine-wools,  trace  back  to  Spanish 
origin.  They  were  established  as  a  breed  in  France  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They  are  larger  in  size 
than  the  other  fine-wool  breeds,  carry  more  flesh,  with  less 
density  and  fineness  of  fleece. 

The  Delaine  Merino  was  produced  by  selection  from  the 
American  Merino  in  order  to  give  a  type  showing  more  mutton 
and  constitution. 

*  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Syracuse  University. 

.340 


350  THE  HANDBOOK  FOK  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Medium-wool  or  mutton  breeds. —  There  are  eight  principal 
jnedium-wool  or  mutton  breeds,  each  one  having  certain  char- 
acteristics and  adaptations. 

The  Shropshire  was  originated  in  Shropshire  and  Stafford 
Counties,  England,  by  crossing  and  selection  with  Morfs  Com- 
mon, Southdowns,  Cotswolds  and  Leicesters.     Shropshires  or 


Fu;.  177.— Kuiiiljouiliet  ram,  sliuwii 


)1  tvDc  and  character. 


"  Shrops  "  as  they  are  commonly  called  are  one  of  the  most 
profitable  and  popular  breeds  in  America  to-day.  They  are  well 
adapted  to  general  farm  conditions.  Both  rams  and  ewes  are 
polled;  the  present  type  Shropshire  is  heavily  wooled  over  the 
head  and  face,  and  well  covered  over  the  legs.  Pure  bred  Shrop- 
shire rams  are  excellent  to  use  in  grade  or  scrub  flocks,  to  build 
up  the  size,  uniformity  and  lamb  production. 

The  Hampshire  was  established  by  crossing  and  selection 
from  Wiltshire  Knots,  Berkshire  Knots,  SouthdoA\ms  and  Cots- 
wolds. Both  pure  bred  and  grade  Hampshires  are  in  big 
demand.     The  breed  is  polled,  with  black  face  and  legs,  and 


SHEEP 


351 


rather  large  drooping  ears.  Their  size  is  slightly  larger  than 
the  Shropshire.  Lambs  of  this  breed  are  usually  very  dark 
when  dropped,  but,  later  turn  white.  Hampshires  are  well 
adapted  to  average  farm  conditions;  they  are  hardy  and  good 
all-purpose  sheep.  For  grading  up  a  flock  a  pure  bred  ram  of 
tliis  breed  is  very  desirable,  as  his  black-faced  lambs  will  always 
be  in  good  market  demand. 

The  Oxford  was  originated  in  Oxford  Oounty,  England,  by 
selection  and  crossing  with  the  Cotswold,  Hampshire  and  South- 


FiG.   178.— Shrop-h 


).  sliowing  mutton  type  and  (li,ii-,u 


down  breeds.  Oxfords  are  the  largest  of  the  medium-wool 
breeds,  mature  rams  should  weigh  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
to  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  mature  ewes  in  good  condition 
should  weigh  over  two  hundred  pounds.  The  breed  is  polled. 
Pure  bred  rams  are  very  desirable  for  use  in  grade  flocks,  espe- 
cially where  large  size  is  desired. 

The  Southdown  originated  in  Sussex  County,  England.  The 
present  type  has  been  produced  by  selection  from  the  old  native 
Sussex  sheep.  The  Southdown  is  a  very  old  breed.  They  are 
the  smallest  of  the  common  breeds  of  mutton  sheep,  and  have  a 
very  superior  carcass,  being  exceedingly  firmly  fleshed  and 
evenly  fattened.    They  have  won  more  championships  in  carcass 


352  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


classes  than  any  of  the  other  breeds,  grades  or  cross-hreds. 
Southdowns  are  very  prepotent,  and  are  a  Avell  fixed  type.  Pure 
bred  rams  of  this  breed  if  used  on  a  grade  flock  will  soon  estab- 
lish a  very  uniform  and  well  fixed  type. 

The  Dorset  Horn  is  another  English  breed.  They  were  origi- 
nated by  sekction  and  crossing  Old  Dorsets  and  Somersets. 
Both  rams  and  ewes  have  heavy  spiral  horns,  those  of  the  ram 
being  much  heavier  and  more  twisted  than  the  ewe;  their  face 
and  legs  are  free  from  wool  and  covered  with  white  hair ;  they 
are  medium  in  size.  This  breed  is  especially  noted  for  its  ability 
to  produce  the  so-called  "hot-house"  lambs,  which  are  dropped 

in   the   early   fall,   and 

jDut  on  the  Christmas 
market,  in  a  highly  fin- 
ished condition.  Ewes 
of  this  breed  will  take 
the  ram  any  season  of 
the  year,  and  are  more 
sure  in  this  respect 
than  either  fine-w^ool  or 
Tunis  ewes.  These 
three  breeds  are  the 
only  ones  which  will 
take  the  ram  at  any 
time  other  than  the 
regular  fall  breeding 
season,  ^ure  bred  Dor- 
set rams  can  be  used  to 
marked  advantage  in 
building  up  a  grade 
flock  where  it  is  desired 
to  raise  lambs  for  this 
special  kind  of  trade. 


N 

1 

m 

."« 

Fig.  179. —  Pure  bred  yearling  Tunis  ew^^. 


The  Cheviot  was  originated  on  the  border  of  England  and 
Scotland  by  selection  and  crossing  the  Old  Cheviot,  Lincolnshire 
and  Leicester.  The  breed  is  hornless,  the  head,  face  and  legs 
are  free  from  wool,  and  covered  with  short,  white  hair.  Cheviots 
do  not  flock  together  well,  and  for  this  reason  are  not  well 
adapted  to  grazing  on  large  open  tracts  of  land ;  however,  they 
are  especially  good  rustlers,  are  exceedingly  hard}^,  and  \^^ll  do 
well  on  small  farms.  Their  fleece  is  of  excellent  quality.  Pure 
bred  rams  of  this  breed  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  build- 
ing up  and  improving  grade  flocks. 


SHEEP 


353 


The  Tunis  originated  in  northern  Africa.  They  show  con- 
siderable variation  in  type ;  although  considered  hornless  horns 
{r'ometimes  occur;  the  head,  face  and  legs  are  free  from  wool, 
and  covered  with  hair  which  varies  in  color  from  light  yellowish 
brown  to  dark  brown  or  mottled.  The  ears  are  large  and  droop- 
ing, and  the  tail  is  broad  and  fat ;  they  are  medium  in  size.  This 
breed  also  excels  in  the  production  of  early  lambs,  as  they  will 
mate  in  the  spring  and  drop  lambs  that  can  be  marketed  in  the 
winter  when  the  demand  is  greatest.  The  rams  are  not  so 
desirable  for  grading 
up  a  flock,  as  they  are 
somewhat  lacking  in 
uniformity  of  type,  with 
a  corresponding  varia- 
tion in  i^repotency. 

Tlie  Suffolk  *^Down 
originated  in  England. 
The  breed  is  iDolled. 
The  head,  face  and  legs 
are  black;  their  fleece 
is  rather  light  Avitli  a 
tendenc}"  to  be  kemjn'. 
Suffolks  are  not  so  pop- 
ular as  some  of  the 
other  medium-Avool 
breeds. 

There  are  several 
other  medium-Avool 
breeds  w^hich  are  of  lit- 
tle or  no  commercial  im- 
portance in  America. 


Fig.  ISO. 


(1  Karakul  ram.    Yearling. 


Pure  brc 

m  iunerica.  Among  them  might  be  mentioned  the 
Welsh  Mountain,  the  Eveland,  the  Exmoor  Horn  and  the  Kerry 
Hill. 

Long-ivool  breeds. —  The  three  principal  long-wool  breeds  in 
America  are  the  Lincoln,  the  Leicester  and  Cotswold.  The  other 
and  lesser  known  long-wool  breeds  of  sheep  are  the  Kent  or 
Komney  Marsh,  the  Black-Faced  Highland  and  the  Karakul. 
Long-wool  sheep  as  the  name  implies  have  coarse,  long  wool, 
which  usually  hangs  in  long  ringlets;  however,  as  it  does  not 
contain  much  grease  or  yolk  the  average  weight  of  a  fleece  from 
the  three  principal  breeds  is  only  about  nine  to  fourteen  pounds. 
Long-wools  are  very  large  sized.  Mature  rams  in  good  condition 
should  average  over  three  hundred  pounds.    Their  open  fleece 


354  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

makes  it  necessary  to  provide  them  with  good  shelter ;  they  are 
not  well  adapted  to  large  open  tracts  of  land  or  extreme  brush 
or  hill  comitry.  Pure  bred  rams  may  be  used  in  grade  flocks 
where  it  is  desired  to  increase  size. 

Lesser  knoivn  breeds. —  Corriedales  have  assumed  some  im- 
portance in  the  West  of  late  years.  They  were  originated  by 
crossing  Lincoln  rams  on  C  type  Merino  ewes,  and  are  not  yet 
well  fixed  in  type. 

The  Karakul  while  classed  in  general  as  a  long-wool  breed 
is  especially  noted  for  the  production  of  Persian  lamb  skins. 
There  is  a  mistaken  idea  that  these  lamb  skins  are  produced  by 
Persian  sheep,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  The  texture  and  quality 
of  fur  produced  compares  favorably  with  the  finest  fur  on  the 
market  to-day.  Other  types  of  these  fur-producing  sheep  are  the 
Arabi,  the  Shiraz  and  the  Duzbi. 

The  Shetland  is  a  native  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  They  are 
very  small,  their  fleece  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hosiery  and 
the  famous  Shetland  shawls. 

Other  breeds  of  a  wild  or  semi-wild  type  are  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain or  Big  Horn ;  the  Barbados  and  the  Barbary  or  Aoudad. 

Market  classification  of  sheep. —  On  the  market  sheep  are 
classified  according  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  placed. 
Their  general  appearance,  condition  and  age  largely  determine 
into  what  sub-class  and  grade  they  will  be  placed.  The  market 
classes  are  (1)  Mutton,  or  sheep  which  are  intended  for  the 
block.  Both  native  and  western  sheep  are  found  in  this  class. 
(2)  Feeders;  these  are  largely  westerns.  (3)  Breeding  sheep; 
both  natives  and  westerns  are  in  this  class.  Natives  show  a  pre- 
dominance of  medium-wool  blood,  while  westerns  show  a 
predominance  of  fine-wool  blood. 

There  are  various  sub-classes  and  grades  for  each  class.  Sub- 
classes of  mutton  sheep  are  lambs,  yearlings,  ewes,  wethers, 
bucks  and  stags.  Feeders  are  subdivided  into  lambs,  wethers, 
yearlings  and  ewes.  Breeders  are  composed  of  ewes  and  rams. 
AgQ  and  condition  determine  almost  entirely  the  grade  into 
which  any  of  the  subclasses  will  fall.  In  almost  all  classes  the 
grades  range  from  prime  to  common,  with  a  corresponding 
variation  in  price;  present  quotations  (September,  1919),  show 
an  average  for  the  five  leading  markets  of  $4.50  to  $17.75. 

Founding  the  flock. —  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized 
that  there  is  no  one  best  breed  for  all  conditions  and  circum- 
stances. Every  breed  has  certain  adaptations  .and  character- 
istics which  make  it  suitable  for  given  conditions.    The  beginner 


SHEEP 


355 


often  debates  between  scrubs,  grades  or  pure  breds.  No  right 
thinking  man  expects  or  intends  to  keep  on  raising  scrubs,  and 
if  he  starts  with  grade  ewes  he  must  give  some  consideration 
to  the  predominant  blood  which  they  are  carrying.  If  the 
future  floclmiaster  has  absolutely  no  laiowledge  of  the  care 
and  management  of  sheep  it  is  always  advisable  to  start  con- 
servatively ;  the  necessary  experience  will  then  not  be  so  dearly 
bought. 

For  the  average  farm  good  grade  ewes  of  mutton  type  headed 
by  a  pure  bred  ram,  of  any  of  the  popular  mutton-breeds  will 
do  very  nicely  for  a  beginning.    Later  a  few  pure  bred  ewes,  of 


Fig.  181. — Noting  widlli 


iind  smoothness  of  shoulder. 


the  same  breed  as  the  ram,  may  be  added.  Age  is  an  important 
factor  in  selecting  breeders.  Two  years  old  is  very  acceptable 
for  foundation  material ;  by  that  time  they  are  proven  breeders, 
with  the  greater  part  of  their  usefulness  still  ahead  of  them. 
Both  ewes  and  rams  will  begin  to  go  down  hill  some  after  they 
have  passed  their  fifth  or  sixth  year;  this  is  much  more  pro- 
nounced in  the  case  of  the  ewes.  Sheep  get  their  first  pair  of 
permanent  incisor  teeth  at  one  year ;  they  get  an  additional  pair 
of  permanent  incisors  every  succeeding  year,  until  they  have  a 
total  of  four  pairs  of  permanent  incisors.    There  will  always  be 


356  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


some  variation  in  the  above,  however.  At  five  years  of  age  sheep 
will  almost  always  have  what  is  termed  a  "  full  mouth."  Sound- 
ness, slope  and  color  of  the  teeth  are  the  relative  guides  for  age 
after  that.  General  form  and  bodily  condition  are  also  deter- 
mining factors.    Do  not  be  afraid  to  buy  a  good  ram.    It  pays. 

Care  and  management. —  Select  a  good  breed  or  type,  and  do 
not  change.  Try  to  improve  the  breed  or  type  you  have  selected 
rather  than  changing  to  another.  Do  not  cross  one  breed  on 
another,  except  in  rare  cases  for  commercial  purposes.     Keep 


^^^^  -  * 

ml  mtm 

^^^ 

Fig.  1S2.— Taking  depth  of  chest. 

only  the  best.    Ewe  lambs  that  are  one  of  twins  or  triplets  are 
very  liable  to  be  prolific  breeders. 

Ewes  should  be  bred  as  early  in  the  fall  as  they  will  take  the 
ram.  Just  prior  to  the  breeding  season  ewes  should  be  fed  some 
grain  in  addition  to  pasture  to  put  them  in  good  physical  con- 
dition, this  is  called  '' flushing."  The  ram  should  also  be  fed 
some  good  grain  mixture  at  this  time,  preferably  one  relatively 
high  in  protein.  By  painting  the  under  part  of  the  ram's  belly 
he  will  mark  the  ewes  served ;  they  should  then  be  taken  out  and 
the  date  recorded,  so  the  shepherd  can  tell  approximately  when 
they  are  due  to  lamb ;  later  they  should  be  tried  back  to  the  ram, 
thus  making  sure  they  are  pregnant.     The  average  period  of 


SHEEP 


357 


gestation  for  ewes  is  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  to  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty-five  days,  or  apiDroximately  five  months.  The 
birth  weight  of  lambs  taken  from  the  average  of  all  common 
breeds  is  six  to  nine  pounds.  The  ram  should  be  allowed  with 
ewes  only  during  the  breeding  season.  A  good  ram  properly 
managed  can  take  care  of  from  fifty  to  eighty  ewes. 

Dry,  well-ventilated  quarters  must  be  provided  through  the 
winter.    Pregnant  ewes  must  be  given  plenty  of  nutritious  feed 


Fig.  1S3. —  Beginning  at  top  of  shoulder  and  passing  back  Avitli  one  Land, 
observe  strength,  straightness  and  fleshing  of  back. 

or  they  cannot  produce  strong,  healthy  lambs.  A  very  high, 
closely  boarded  fence  built  around  the  south  side  of  the  barn  will 
keep  out  dogs,  and  give  the  ewes  a  nice  place  to  sun  themselves 
on  bright  days.  During  the  lambing  season  the  ewes  should  be 
visited  two  or  three  times  nightly.  A  little  extra  care  and  atten- 
tion at  this  time  will  be  well  rewarded.  Each  ewe  should  be  kept 
separate  with  her  lambs  for  at  least  twenty-four  hours.  Hinged 
hurdles  can  be  used  advantageously  in  making  small  temporary 
individual  lambing  pens. 

Docking  and  castrating  is  not  a  difficult  operation.    "When  the 
lambs  are  four  davs  to  three  weeks  old  is  the  best  time  for  the 


358  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMEKS 

operation.  The  tail  may  be  either  cut,  chopped  or  seared  off 
with  hot  pincers.  The  hot  pincer  method  has  met  with  the  great- 
est favor,  especially  in  large  flocks,  as  it  practically  eliminates 
bleeding,  fly-blowing  and  infection.  Castration  should  take 
place  at  the  same  time  as  docking.  A  good  disinfectant  should 
be  liberally  used.  Five  per  cent  lysol  solution  is  excellent.  The 
lower  third  of  the  scrotum  should  be  cut  off  and  the  testicles 
drawn  out,  pull  out  any  loose  ends  of  cord  that  remain,  disinfect 


Fig.  184. — Taking  width  and  length  of  loin,  also  thickness  and  firmness  of 
tiesh. 

parts,  and  provide  lambs  with  plenty  of  good,  clean,  dry  straw 
to  lie  on. 

For  marking  sheep  the  following  system  of  ear  notching  may 
be  used: 

Combinations  can  be  easily  arranged  from  this  system  which 
will  give  sufficient  numbers  in  proper  rotation  suitable  for  any 
average  sized  flock.  In  pure  bred  flocks  metal  ear  tags  should 
be  used. 

Wool. —  The  time  of  shearing  varies  with  different  localities. 
In  general  it  is  best  to  shear  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  weather 


SHEEP 


359 


permits.  If  properly  handled  there  is  no  danger  in  shearing 
pregnant  ewes,  however,  with  the  exception  that  the  South  ewes 
should  have  yeaned  before  shearing  time.  Machine  clippers  are 
easier  and  more  economical  to  use  than  hand  shears.  Remove 
all  dirt  and  tag  ends  from  the  wool.  Roll  the  fleece  flesh  side 
out,  tie  with  hard-glazed  or  paper  twine,  and  pack  in  large 
paper-lined  sacks. 

A  general  classification  of  wool  is,  Domestic,  Territory  and 
Carpet  or  Blanket.  Subclasses  are,  Clothing,  Delaine  and 
Combing.    The  grade  into  which  wool  is  placed  depends   on 


Fig.  1S5. —  Noting  the  degree  to  which  the  width  of  body  is  carried  to  the  end. 

several  factors,  such  as  density,  condition,  fineness,  weight  and 
color.  Delaine  and  combing  grades  include,  half-blood,  three- 
eighths  and  quarter  blood  combing,  common  and  braid.  The 
commonly  quoted  grades  of  clothing  wool  are,  half  blood,  three- 
eighths  and  quarter  blood  clothing.  An  average  of  ten  repre- 
sentative sheep  raising  states  for  the  month  of  August,  1919, 
show  a  range  in  price  from  fortj^-eight  to  seventy-three  cents  per 
pound  for  unwashed  wool  in  the  various  grades.  The  percentage 
referred  to  is  Merino  blood.  On  the  average  the  higher  this 
percentage  the  nearer  it  approaches  the  top  price. 
Pasture,  concentrates  and  roughages.—  Sheep  should  not  be 


360  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

pastured  with  other  kinds  of  live  stock.  Frequent  change  of 
pasture  is  advisable;  shade  and  fresh  drinking  water  should 
always  be  provided.  An  acre  of  good  bluegrass  will  easily  carry 
five  mature  sheep;  an  acre  of  rape  will  accommodate  about 
seven.  For  the  average  farm  about  one  sheep  to  every  three 
acres  of  land  is  a  good  ratio ;  this  will  furnish  enough  land  for 
frequent  rotation  of  pasture.  Continuous  grazing  on  the  same 
piece  of  land  will  cause  sheep  to  become  heavily  infested  with 
stomach  worms.  Weaned  lambs  should  be  provided  with  sep- 
arate pasture.    The  following  grasses  make  good  sheep  pasture : 


I 


i 

'Vl 

..  ^     .       \ 

m 

^ 

».^. 

■r"^ 

1 

W 

^v  1^1^ 

l 

r'H 

■r^-.. 

'**5S^ 

^ 

^P 

bi 

-    m 

^^ 

Fig.  186. —  Observing  length  of  the  rump  by  placing  one  hand  at  hip  point, 
and  the  other  at  the  tail  end. 

Bluegrass,  Bermuda  grass,  orchard  grass  and  native  grass. 
Rough  weedy  land  will  often  afford  good  pasture  and  benefit 
the  land.  Clover  and  alfalfa  pasture  are  very  liable  to  cause 
severe  bloat  unless  sheep  are  accustomed  to  them.  Rape  is  an 
annual  forage  crop  affording  sheep  pasture  par  excellence. 

The  grain  mixture  fed  should  be  thinly  distributed  over  the 
bottom  of  the  feed  rack.  It  does  not  pay  to  grind  feed  for 
sheep.  An  old  sa^nng  among  experienced  shepherds  is  that 
a  sheep  which  cannot  grind  its  own  grain  is  not  worth  feeding. 
Pregnant  ewes,  if  fed  plenty  of  good  nutritious  roughage,  will 
require  very  little  if  any  grain;  however,  when  sucking  lambs 


SHEEP 


361 


they  should  be  fed  from  one-half  to  one  pound  of  grain  per 
head  daily.  Fattening  sheep  will  require  on  the  average  from 
one  to  two  pounds  of  grain  mixture,  in  addition  to  one  or  tw^o 
pounds  of  good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  and  one  to  two  pounds  of 
corn  silage  (free  from  mold)  per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight 
daily.     The  following  are  excellent  grain  mixtures  for  sheep: 


]\nXTURK   XO.    1 

]\IlXTURE  No.   2 

Mixture  Xo,  3 

Parts  by  \v eight 

Parts  by  weight 

Parts  by  weight 

Corn  ...                                  f) 

Corn ...      5 

Corn                                          4 

A\  heat  bran                             '5 

Oats  ...                          :i 

Jjiiiseed  meal                           1 

Wheat  bran '2 

Lin. seed  meal 1 

An}^  of  the  above  will  gi\'e  about  the  proper  average  nutritive 
ratio.  Barley,  enuner,  kafir  and  niilo  may  be  successfully  sub- 
stituted for  corn  in  any  of  the  above.  Wheat  is  not  a  profitable 
concentrate  for  sheep  feeding. 

Eoughages  for  sheep  include  the  various  hays,  ensilage  and 
roots.  The  legumes  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  cow  pea  hay  are 
all  good.    Timothy  hay  should  not  be  fed  to  sheep  as  it  is  very 


Fig.  1S7. —  Grasping  the  leg  of  mutton  with  both  hands  well  up,  note  thick- 
ness and  firmness  ol'  Hesh,  and  the  depth  and  breadth  of  twist. 


362  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

liable  to  cause  severe  constipation  and  impaction ;  this  is  especi- 
ally true  in  the  case  of  pregnant  ewes.  Corn  silage  can  be 
safely  and  profitably  fed,  provided  it  is  free  from  frost  or  mold. 
Roots  such  as  mangels,  sugar  beets,  turnips  and  rutabagas  make 
excellent  succulent  roughage  for  sheep.  Mangels  or  sugar  beets 
should  not  be  fed  to  rams  or  wethers,  for  very  long,  as  they  are 
liable  to  cause  bladder  stones ;  ewes,  however,  do  not  seem  to  be 


Fig.  ISS. —  Manner  and  place  of  opening  fleece  to  examine  the  densest  and 
finest  quality  of  wool.  Note  also  color  and  condition  of  skin.  The  same 
may  be  done  on  the  liiiid  quarter  to  examine  the  poorest  quality  of  wool. 

SO  troubled.    Roots  may  be  fed  in  conjunction  with  or  success- 
fully substituted  for  corn  silage. 

Marketing. —  Pure  bred  sheep  should  be  sold  by  private  or 
public  sale.  Good  pure  breds  should  bring  a  much  higher  price 
than  that  quoted  for  market  classes  and  grades.  Sheep  are 
usually  shipped  in  double-deck  cars.  The  average  car  will 
accommodate  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  head 
per  deck.  The  minimum  freight  rate  on  most  roads  is  16,000 
pounds.  A  day  or  two  before  shipping  only  dry  roughage  should 
be  fed.  An  average  shrink  in  transit  for  sheep  is  four  to  eight 
per  cent,  depending  on  management  and  length  of  travel  time. 
The  average  dressing  per  cent  for  fat  sheep  is  fifty-three  to 
fifty -eight  per  cent.    When  it  becomes  difficult  for  the  lambs  to 


SHEEP  363 

crawl  through  an  eiglit-iiich  creep  they  are  about  ready  for 
market.  Spring  lambs  should  be  marketed  from  April  to  June, 
weighing  from  sixty  to  eighty  pounds  live  weight. 

DISEASES  OF  SHEEP 

V,r  Dr.  J.  ir.  Hewitt,  I).V.:\r. 

Cold  in  the  head. — Caused  by  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness 
or  draughts.  Animal  has  nasal  discharge  accompanied  often 
times  by  sneezing  and  coughing.  Provide  dry  well-ventilated 
quarters  and  give  one  teaspoonful  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  the 
grain  to  two  sheep. 

Bloatingf. —  See  cows. 

Diarrhoea. — See  horse. 

Constipation. —  See  horse. 

Stomach  worms  are  very  frequently  found  in  sheep  and  cause 
very  great  damage.  They  are  small  hairlike  worms  and  are 
frequently  overlooked  on  examination.  If  the  animals  become 
unthrifty  in  the  spring  with  an  occasional  loss,  look  for  worms. 
These  can  be  kept  from  the  flock  by  keeping  tobacco  dust  and 
salt  where  the  sheep  can  get  to  it.  When  affected  give  the 
f  ollo^\dng  : 

Powdered  areca  nut four  ounces 

Powdered  arsenous  acid one  dram 

Sulphate  of  iron one-half  ounce 

Powdered  nux  vomica two  ounces 

Powdered  gentian   two  ounces 

This  is  one  dose  for  twenty-flve  sheep.  Repeat  daily  until 
results  are  obtained. 

Scab  is  caused  by  a  very  small  ins(^ct  that  burrows  in  the 
skin.  It  causes  much  irintation,  uneasiness,  loss  of  wool  and 
flesh.    Apply  daily  the  following: 

Lime  water ciglit  ounces 

Sulphur six  ounces 

Crcolin   two  ounces 

Cottonseed  oil    eight  ounces 

or  wash  with  the  following: 

Creolin  four  ounces 

Water ^ one  pail 

If  many  animals  are  to  be  treated  use  the  lime  and  sulphur 
dip  given  in  I^.  S.  Bulletin. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


SWINE 
By  Prof.  Jaiik.s  R.  Dice,  M.fi.^ 

The  United  States  produces  about  half  of  the  world's  pork. 
The  fat  hog  is  an  American  product  that  will  continue  to  have  a 
place  on  our  farms.  Hogs  will  produce  more  meat  from  a  hun- 
dred pounds  of  grain  than  any  other  farm  animal.  They  will 
use  many  things  from  the  farm  that  would  otherwise  spoil. 

Successful  practices  in  swine  husbandry  have  recently  under- 
gone a  remarkable  change.  There  is  a  place  for  a  sow  and  her 
litter  on  practically  every  farm  in  this  country.  The  man  that 
is  not  growing  all  of  the  pork  that  his  conditions  warrant  is 
losing  money.  The  man  that  is  feeding  hogs  according  to  old 
methods  is  usually  not  making  a  profit.  The  hog  has  been,  is 
and  will  be  the  mortgage  lifter  of  the  farm. 

Types  of  swine. —  There  are  two  types  of  swine ;  the  fat  hog 
type  and  the  bacon  type. 

The  fat  or  American  hogs  should  be  low  set,  broad  and  long. 
Vigor  and  capacity  are  essential.  Fat  hogs  are  marketed  when 
they  weigh  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  live 
weight. 

The  bacon  hogs  should  be  long  and  deep  in  proportion  to  their 
width.  The  sides  should  be  straight  from  the  front  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  back  of  the  ham.  They  are  more  active  than  fat 
hogs.  Bacon  hogs  are  marketed  Avhen  they  weigh  about  one 
hundred  and  eighty  pounds  live  weight. 

Breeds  of  swine. — 


Fat  Hog  Type 

1. 

2 
3. 

Berkshire 
Poland  China 
Chester  white 

8. 

9. 

10. 

Essex 

Small  Yorkshire 

Suffolk 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

Duroc  Jersey 
Cheshire 
Victoria 
Mule  Foot 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Bacon  Hog  Type 
Large  Yorkshire 
Tarn  worth 
Thin  Rind  or  Hampshire 

North  Dakota  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

364 


SWINE 


365 


Fat  hogs.— 

Berkshire. —  Native  of  England.  Color,  black,  with  six  white 
points,  i.  e.,  white  on  tip  of  tail,  nose  or  face  and  white  feet. 
Ears  erect. 

The  Berkshires  are  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  breeds 
of  hogs  in  this  country,  due  to  their  adaptability  and  good  dis- 
positions.   They  excel  in  the  quality  of  meat  and  are  good 


Vu\.  IS!). —  A  fat  barrow,  low  set,  broad  and  loiii;. 

grazers,  feeders  and  mothers.  They  are  criticized  for  not 
maturing  quickly  and  for  not  being  prolific. 

Poland  China. —  Native  of  Ohio.  Cooler,  black  with  six  white 
points.    Ears  lopped. 

The  Poland  Chinas  are  found  principally  in  the  corn  belt. 
They  excel  in  early  maturity  and  rapid  fattening.  They  lack 
in  quality  of  meat,  strength  of  bone,  prolificacy  and  do  not  do  so 
well  in  extremely  warm  or  cold  climates. 

Chester  White. —  Originated  in  Pennsylvania.  Color,  white. 
Ears  lopped. 


366  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  Chester  Whites  are  popular  in  the  East  where  a  white 
breed  is  preferred.  They  are  good  feeders  and  produce  large 
litters.  They  sunburn  in  hot  climates  and  tend  to  be  coarse  and 
weak-boned. 

Duroc  Jersey. —  Originated  principally  in  the  corn  belt  from 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  stock  by  "  men  who  had  to  make  a 
living  from  pork  growing."    Color,  red.    Ears  lopped. 


Fig.  190. —  A  typical  bacon  hog,  deep,  long  and  nairuw. 

The  Duroc  Jerseys  are  popular  pork  producers,  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  economical  feeders,  prolific  and  adaptable  to 
varied  conditions.  A  tendency  to  be  coarse  and  rangy  and  to  be 
wrinkled  are  criticisms  which  the  Duroc  Jersey  breeders  are 
endeavoring  to  meet. 

Cheshire. —  Originated  in  New  York.  Color,  white.  Ears 
erect. 

The  Cheshires  as  a  breed  are  not  widely  distributed.  The 
breed  resembles  the  Berkshire  somewhat  in  form  and  qualitj^ 
The  quality  of  the  meat  is  good.    They  are  good  mothers. 

Bacon  hogs. — 

Large  Yorkshire. —  Native  of  England.  Color,  white.  Ears 
straight. 

The  Large  Yorkshires  are  the  most  popular  bacon  hogs  in  this 
country.     They  are  large  in  size,  produce  excellent  bacon  and 


SWINE  367 

largo  litters  of  pigs.  When  crossed  with  fat  hogs  the  result  is 
a  good  general  purpose  hog.  They  have  a  tendency  to  have  light 
loins  and  long  legs. 

TcniurortJi. —  Native  of  England.  Color,  red.  Ears  large  and 
straight. 

The  Tamworths  are  large  in  size.  They  tend  to  be  more  rangy 
and  coarser  than  the  I^arge  Yorkshire.  Otherwise,  the  two 
breeds  are  quite  alike  for  bacon  production.  The  Tamworths 
are  especially  hardy. 

The  Hampshires  or  Thin  Rinds. —  Native  of  England.  Color, 
black  with  white  belt  back  of  shoulders.    Ears  straight. 

The  Hampshires  are  medium-sized.  They  are  intermediate 
in  type  and  sometimes  classed  as  fat  hogs.  Quality  and  smooth- 
ness are  characteristic.  Usually  only  a  part  of  the  litters  have 
the  typical  color  markings. 

Selection  of  breeding  stock. —  It  is  best  not  to  select  breeders 
until  after  they  are  six  montlis  old.  Select  the  pigs  before  they 
are  weaned  if  the  selection  must  be  made  from  young  pigs. 

Good  individuals  with  plenty  of  vigor  should  be  chosen,  pre- 
ferably from  prolific  dams. 

Tlie  boars  shoukl  be  masculine,  medium  to  large  in  size  and 
rather  compact.    The  sows  should  be  feminine  and  rather  rangy. 

The  boar  pigs  should  be  separated  from  the  sows  after  they 
are  six  months  old.  The  boars  may  be  used  for  light  service 
when  they  are  eight  months  old.  The  sows  may  be  bred  when 
they  are  from  eight  to  twelve  months  old. 

The  best  time  for  sows  to  farrow  for  spring  pigs  is  in  March 
and  April.  For  fall  pigs  in  August  and  September.  The  gesta- 
tion period  for  a  sow  is  from  one  hundred  and  fourteen  to  one 
hundred  and  eighteen  days,  easy  to  remember  as  three  months, 
three  weeks  and  three  days.  When  a  soav  is  pregnant  she  is 
lazy.  She  shoukl  be  comp(»lled  to  exercise.  Her  feed  should  be 
bulky  and  abundant. 

Management  of  sow  and  young  pigs. —  A  w^eek  or  so  before 
farrowing  time,  the  sow  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  pen.  The 
attendant  should  gain  the  confidence  of  the  sow  so  that  she  will 
not  be  afraid.  Fenders  should  be  put  around  the  sides  of  the 
])en.  A  two  by  six-inch  plank  eight  inches  from  the  floor  is  good. 
Short  straw  should  be  sparingly  provided  for  a  bed. 

A  sow  will  farrow  twenty-four  hours  after  the  udder  fills  with 
milk.  Other  indications  are  the  gathering  of  sticks  or  straw  for 
a  bed  and  uneasiness  of  the  sow.  A  sow  should  never  be  moved 
or  disturbed  after  she  has  made  her  bed  or  started  to  farrow. 


368  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Prompt  assistance  is  necessary  if  the  sow  has  difficulty  in 
delivering  the  pigs.  If  the  farrowing  place  is  cold  the  pigs  will 
need  attention.  A  jug  of  hot  water  in  a  box  is  a  good  way  to 
keep  them  warm.  If  a  pig  gets  so  cold  that  it  is  paralyzed, 
immerse  in  hot  water  and  then  rub  dry  and  wrap  in  woolen 
cloth. 

Exercise  for  sow  and  pigs  at  this  time  is  necessary. 

The  sow  should  not  be  fed  the  day  she  farrows.  Plenty  of 
water  should  be  provided.  The  sow  should  be  on  full  feed  by 
the  third  or  fourth  day  and  should  then  be  fed  liberally  on  a  milk 
producing  ration  (see  feeding). 

Weaning :  The  pigs  should  not  be  weaned  till  they  are  at  least 
six  weeks  old.  Take  the  sow  away  from  the  pigs,  not  the  pigs 
away  from  the  sow  if  possible. 

Castration  of  young  pigs. —  Pigs  should  be  castrated  when 
they  are  young.  About  a  week  before  they  are  Aveaned  is  the 
best  time.  The  longer  the  operation  is  delayed,  the  more  of  a 
setback  it  is  to  the  pig. 

The  operation  should  be  performed  on  a  clear,  dry  day.  It  is 
best  to  let  the  pigs  run  in  a  clean  pasture  afterwards.  It  is  well 
to  play  safe.  The  operator  should  wash  the  scrotum  and  also 
his  hands  and  the  knife  in  an  antiseptic  solution. 

The  attendant  should  hold  the  right  hind  and  front  leg  of  the 
pig  in  his  right  hand  and  the  left  hind  and  front  leg  in  his  left. 
In  this  manner  the  pig  should  be  held  in  the  lap  of  the  attendant. 

A  testicle  is  seized  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the 
operator  and  an  incision  is  made  over  the  most  prominent  part, 
parallel  with  the  middle  line  of  the  scrotum  and  a  half  inch  to 
the  side  of  it.  The  cut  should  be  long  enough  to  free  the  testicle 
and  should  go  through  the  sack  that  encloses  the  testicle.  The 
membraneous  sac  is  allowed  to  go  back  and  should  be  cut  loose 
at  the  inner  part  of  the  testicle  so  that  the  cords  may  be  pulled 
out  and  scraped,  not  cut,  off. 

To  castrate  a  pig  is  a  simple  operation  and  any  farmer  can 
easily  perform  it  after  a  little  practice. 

FEEDS 

Corn. —  Corn  as  a  hog  feed  is  unequaled.  It  contains  large 
amounts  of  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  a  palatable  form.  More 
hogs  are  annually  fattened  on  corn  than  on  all  other  feeds  com- 
bined. Corn  is  low  in  protein  and  ash  content  so  that  it  should 
be  supplemented  with  muscle  and  bone-building  material. 


SWINE  369 

Wheat. —  Wheat  is  on  a  par  with  corn  as  a  feed  for  hogs.  The 
price  of  wheat  nsually  makes  it  iirohibitive  for  feeding  purposes. 

Barley. —  Bark^y  ranks  next  to  corn  and  wheat  as  a  fattening 
feed  for  hogs.    Palatal)le  protein  feeds  shoiikl  be  fed  with  barley. 

Middlings. —  Middlings  are  one  of  the  popular  feeds  for  pigs. 
They  contain  more  protein  and  less  carbohydrates  than  corn. 
They  contain  little  bone-building  material  and  should  always  be 
fed  witli  corn,  tankage,  etc. 

Tankage. —  Tankage  is  a  waste  product  of  packing  plants.  It 
consists  of  meat  scraps,  fat  trimmings  and  scrap  bones  thor- 
oughly cooked,  sterilized  and  ground.  Tankage  usually  carries 
from  forty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  digestible  protein,  together  with 
considerable  fat  and  ash.  It  is  universally  used  as  a  supplement 
witli  corn  and  other  carbohydrate  feeds. 

Milk. —  Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  rank  as  the  best  supple- 
ments to  use  with  fattening  feeds.  In  addition  to  their  protein 
content,  they  furnish  growth  accessories  or  vitamines  M'hich  are 
necessary  for  normal  growth.  Both  are  profitably  fed  in  the 
proportion  of  three  pounds  of  milk  to  one  jDOund  of  grain. 

Garbage. —  A  limited  amount  of  garbage  can  be  fed  with  good 
results.  Where  garbage  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the  feed,  great 
care  must  be  taken  in  feeding  unless  ''garbage-bred"  stock  is 
used. 

Forage  crops. —  Forage  crops  are  indispensable  for  the  proper 
feeding  of  swine.  They  furnish  the  necessary  bulk  and  succu- 
lence to  the  ration.  They  also  supplement  the  starchy  feeds  and 
supply  the  much-needed  growth  accessories.  The  legumes  are 
especially  good  as  they  supply  not  only  protein  but  also  bone- 
building  material.  Various  tests  have  demonstrated  that  the 
forage  crops  rank  about  as  follows :  Alfalfa,  red  clover,  dwarf 
Essex  rape,  soy  beans,  and  blue  grass. 

As  a  rule  when  feeding  swine : 

1  bushel  corn  fed  alone  returns  10  pounds  gain. 

1  bushel  corn  fed  with  pasture  returns  14-17  pounds  gain. 

1  bushel  corn  fed  with  tankage  returns  17  pounds  gain. 

1  bushel  corn  fed  with  skim  milk  returns  22  pounds  gain. 

Stock  foods. —  Experimental  evidence  obtained  by  several 
experiment  stations  has  proven  that  the  use  of  condimental  stock 
foods  with  hogs,  did  not  result  in  either  larger  or  cheaper  gains. 


370     THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PKACTICAL  FAEMERS 

FEEDING 

Self-feeders  have  entirely  changed  the  method  of  feeding  hogs. 
They  should  be  used  whenever  practicable.  They  save  labor  and 
give  better  results  than  hand  feeding. 

The  practice  of  "hogging  down"  corn  and  other  crops  has 
proven,  without  any  question,  to  be  an  efficient  method  of  gather- 
ing the  crop  and  feeding  the  hogs.  Tankage  and  feeds  to  supple- 
ment tlie  crop  are  fed  in  self-feeders. 

Rations  for  brood  sows  before  and  after  farrowing. —  Ear 
corn,  100  lbs.;  digester  tankage,  12  lbs.;  wheat  bran,  10  lbs.; 
oil  meal,  4  lbs.;  bone  meal,  2  lbs.  Or,  shelled  corn,  100  lbs.; 
alfalfa,  100  lbs. ;  tankage,  5  lbs. 

Alfalfa  should  be  fed  in  a  rack.  If  the  sows  do  not  eat  at  least 
a  half  pound  of  alfalfa  a  day,  it  should  be  ground  and  fed  with 
the  corn ;  or  corn  and  skim  milk  or  buttermilk ;  or  pasture,  corn 
and  tankage  may  be  fed.    Salt  should  be  available  at  all  times. 

The  following  combination  may  be  used :  Corn,  100  lbs. ;  mid- 
dlings, 100  lbs. ;  tankage,  20  lbs. 

Rations  for  young  pigs. —  Eed  dog  flour,  100  lbs. ;  crushed  seed 
oats,  100  lbs. ;  tankage,  10  lbs.    Soaked  corn  may  be  added. 

Eed  dog  flour,  100  lbs.;  rolled  oats,  100  lbs.;  linseed  meal, 
100  lbs. 

Corn  meal  or  soaked  corn,  100  lbs. ;  red  dog  flour  or  middlings, 
50  lbs. ;  linseed  meal,  25  lbs. ;  tankage,  10  lbs.  Skim  milk,  4  \hs. 
of  milk  for  1  lb,  of  grain  may  be  substituted  for  tankage. 

Rations  for  fattening  hogs. —  Hogs  on  fattening  ration  should 
have  access  to  green  feed,  salt  and  sometimes  limestone.  Skim 
milk  or  buttermilk  may  be  substituted  for  tankage  in  any  ration. 

Corn,  100  lbs. ;  red  dog  flour,  25  lbs. ;  tankage,  5  to  10  lbs. 

Corn,  100  lbs. ;  barley,  100  lbs. ;  tankage,  10  to  15  lbs. 

Alfalfa,  pasture  or  hay,  self -fed ;  shelled  corn,  self-fed ;  tank- 
age, self -fed. 

Rations  for  wintering  breeding  stock.—  Alfalfa  hay,  in  rack 
or  ground ;  corn  or  barley,  100  lbs. ;  middlings,  50  lbs. ;  tankage 
(or  milk),  5  to  10  lbs. 

Eecent  experiments  at  the  Iowa  station  have  shown  that  when 
hogs  are  hand  fed  they  should  be  fed  three  times  a  day.  They 
should  be  fed  such  quantities  as  they  will  eat  and  clean  up  with 
relish.  There  is  no  advantage  in  grinding  corn  for  swine.  The 
most  profitable  way  to  feed  corn  to  hogs  is  by  the  method  which 
requires  the  least  preparation  unless  a  self-feeder  is  used. 


SWINE  371 

NORMAL  WEIGHT  OF  HOGS 

According  to  Dietrich  the  normal  weights  for  hogs  are  as 
follows : 

WEIGHT  AGE  WEIGHT  AGE 

50  pounds         2Y2  months  300  pounds  9  months 

100  pounds         4      months  400  pounds  18  months 

200  ])()unds         C)       months 

Dimensions  for  hog  crates. — 

AGE  OF  HOG  SIZE  OF  CRATE 

3  months  3'xl2''x22'' 

6  months  S'lO'^  x  18^' x  26'' 

8  to  10  months  4'6"  x  20"  x  30" 

Hogs  5'x24"x3'2" 

800  lb.  hogs  r/  x  30"  x  3'6" 
Use  4"  X  I/2"  lumber. 

THE  SELF-FEEDER  FOR  HOGS 

According  to  a  government  authority  ''A  self-feeder  is  simply 
a  device  by  means  of  which  a  supply  of  grain  or  other  feed  is 
kept  constantly  available  to  the  hogs." 

There  are  several  types  of  self-feeders,  both  single  and  double. 
They  may  be  built  from  three  to  six  feet  in  length.  Any  agricul- 
tural college  in  the  corn  belt  wall  supply  plans  for  a  good  self- 
feeder.  The  type  of  feeder  used  by  the  Missouri  Agricultural 
College  is  sho^vni  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

HOG  HOUSES 

Piggeries  are  of  two  types:  the  large  centralized  and  the 
small  movable. 

Kegardless  of  type,  the  requirements  for  a  good  house  are: 
They  should  be  clean  and  easily  cleaned,  dry,  comfortable,  well- 
lighted  and  ventilated,  and  be  in  connection  with  a  good  pasture. 

Small  movable  houses. —  The  small  movable  hog  house  is 
gaining  in  favor.    It  has  the  following  advantages : 

Ideal  for  use  in  changeable  yards. 

Easy  to  regulate  exercise  of  hogs  by  placing  house  near  or 
far  from  feeding  place. 

Easily  moved  to  a  new  location. 

They  are  warm  as  there  is  not  a  large  space  to  heat.  A  barn 
lantern  will  serve  as  heater. 


372     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


SECTIONAL    VIEW 

— Cross  Section  of  a  Two-way  Feeder 

Figs.  191-192. —  A  two-way  feeder  used  by  the  Missouri  Agricultural  College. 
Bulletin  144. 


SWINE 


373 


B 

Fig.  193  A  and  B. — Movable  houses  used  by  the  Iowa  Station.    Bulletin  152. 


374  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


They  are  well-liglited  and  ventilated. 

They  are  inexpensive. 

A  farmer  can  build  his  own  hog  houses. 

The  two  most  used  movable  houses  are  the  A-shaped  house 
and  the  gable-roof  house. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  A-shaped  houses.  The  Lovejoy 
house  is  probably  the  best  for  cold  climates.    The  floor  and  each 


.  Fig.  104. —  Lovejoy  house 

side  of  this  house  are  eight  feet  square.  The  lower  two-thirds 
of  the  wall  is  lined  with  building  paper  and  boards.  The  door 
and  Avindow  in  front  serve  for  light  and  ventilation  and  allow 
easy  access  to  the  house.  A  swinging  door  may  be  used  for  cold 
weather. 

For  warm  climates  a  single  walled  house  is  best  with  large 
doors  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  they  can  be  used  for  shade. 

Large  centralized  house. —  The  advantages  of  the  large  cen- 
tralized house,  compared  with  the  movable,  are: 

It  is  more  convenient,  as  the  feed,  water  and  herd  are  all  under 
one  roof. 

It  is  dural)le. 

Lighting  and  ventilation  may  be  more  systematic. 

It  will  serve  as  the  center  for  all  swine  activities. 

The  disadvantages  of  a  large  piggery  are  that  there  is  no 
chance  to  change  the  location  to  suit  changing  conditions.    It  is 


SWINE 


375 


difficult  to  get  the  hogs  on  new  ground  and  considerable  fencing 
is  necessary  to  provide  suitable  range.    The  first  cost  is  high. 

The  centralized  hog  house  should  be  constructed  so  that  the 
sun  will  reach  all  of  the  pens,  especially  in  the  spring  at  farrow- 
ing time.  The  half-monitor  roof  type  of  hog  house  has  been  a 
standard  for  many  years.  The  Iowa  Sunlit  House  has  several 
advantages  over  any  other  community  hog  house. 


All  iJoor  dCwindo^' 

rpme^crc '- 

otconcrete 


AqricMvral  Cnqineermc^  ^ 

i^nirool  Hu-sbondry  Section^ 

IcAva  Expenrnenl. Station. 

Fio,  195. —  The  Iowa  sunlit  house.    Perspective  drawing.    Doors  for  the  hogs  are  here 
iirrangod  in  pairs. — Bullet  in  No.  166. 


BUTCHERING  HOGS  AND  CURING  PORK 

It  ma}^  not  be  practicable  for  every  farmer  to  butcher  and 
cure  his  own  meat,  but  most  farmers  can  do  it  profitably. 

Best  results  are  obtained  when  hogs  not  over  two  hundred 
pounds  in  weight  are  used.  Do  not  feed  the  hogs  for  twenty-four 
hours  before  killing. 

When  sticking  the  hog  make  a  small  opening  just  in  front  of 
the  breast-bone.  The  knife  should  be  pointed  directly  toward 
the  root  of  the  tail  and  held  in  a  line  with  the  backbone.  Push 
the  knife  in  about  six  inches,  edge  toward  the  head.  Do  not 
twist  or  turn  the  knife.    Avoid  sticking  the  heart. 

The  old-fashioned  scalding  barrel  and  platform  are  efficient 
but  laborious.  A  galvanized  iron  water  trough  is  much  better. 
The  water  should  be  at  one  hundred  and  fifty  degrees  for  proper 
scalding.  Use  a  thermometer.  Some  use  a  little  lime,  wood 
ashes  or  lye  in  the  water.  Keep  the  hog  moving  while  it  is  in 
the  water.  A\'lien  the  hair  and  scurf  slip  easily  from  the  surface, 
scalding  is  complete.  The  scraping  should  be  done  rapidly. 
Clean  the  head  and  feet  first. 

Insert  a  gambrel  under  all  of  the  tendons,  three  or  four  inches 
below  the  hocks.  After  the  hog  is  hung,  clean  with  hot  water 
and  then  with  cold  water. 

Removing  entrails.—  Cut  through  the  middle  line,  beginning 


376  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FAEMERS 

at  the  top  and  continue  cutting  down  to  the  jaw.  Split  the  hams 
to  the  pelvic  (coupling)  bone.  If  you  have  cut  exactly  in  the 
middle  it  is  possible  to  split  the  bone  with  the  knife. 

Place  the  knife  between  the  tirst  and  second  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  inserting  the  fingers  where  the  opening  has  been  made 
and  Avith  the  right  hand  force  the  knife  down  to  the  breast  bone. 
Insert  the  knife  between  the  first  ribs  and  split  the  breast  by 
pulling  up  on  the  knife.  In  splitting  the  upper  end  of  the  breast 
bone  be  careful  not  to  cut  the  stomach.  Some  prefer  to  split  the 
breast  bone  from  above. 

Then  remove  the  intestines  and  stomach,  cutting  the  mem- 
branes that  attach  them.  Cut  down  along  the  backbone  and  it 
will  be  easy  to  remove  the  pluck.  Cut  on  each  side  of  the  tongue 
to  loosen  it  and  pull  it  out  mth  an  upward  jerk.  Put  a  piece  of 
wood  in  the  hog's  mouth  and  wash  out  the  inside  of  the  carcass 
with  cold  water.  Spread  open  the  sides  Avith  a  stick.  To  cool 
quickly,  remove  the  head  and  split  the  carcass  down  the 
backbone. 

The  dressing  percentage  for  good  hogs  is  usually  from 
seventy-five  to  eighty  per  cent;  i.  e.,  twenty  to  twenty-five  per 
cent  offal. 

Cutting  up  hogs. —  Cut  off  the  head  an  inch  back  of  the  ears. 
Cut  off  the  shoulders  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  and  the 
hams  two  inches  in  front  of  the  pelvic  bones.  Trim  the  hams 
and  shoulders  neatly.  Remove  the  leaf  lard  by  starting  it  in 
front  and  rolling  it  backward.  Then  take  out  the  loin  and  spare- 
ribs.  Cut  the  side  lengthwise  into  three  pieces.  Use  the  upper 
strip  for  salt  pork  or  lard  and  the  two  lower  strips  for  bacon. 

Curing  meats. —  A  clean  hard  wood  barrel  or  a  crock  are  the 
most  suitable  vessels  in  which  to  cure  meat.  Meat  should  not  be 
cured  until  it  is  thoroughly  cooled,  but  it  should  be  cured  while 
it  is  fresh.    Avoid  freezing. 

Plain  salt  pork. —  Cut  the  meat  into  pieces  about  six  inches 
square.  Rub  with  salt  and  let  stand  over  night.  Then  for  every 
one  hundred  pounds  of  meat,  dissolve  nine  or  ten  pounds  of  salt 
in  four  gallons  of  boiling  Avater.  When  the  brine  is  cold  pour  it 
over  the  meat. 

Brine  cured  pork. —  For  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat 
use  seven  to  nine  pounds  of  salt,  tAvo  and  one-half  pounds  of 
sugar  (white  or  brown),  sirup  or  molasses,  one  to  tAvo  ounces  of 
saltpeter,  four  gallons  of  water.  It  is  safer  to  boil  the  brine 
before  using.  Bacon  strips  should  remain  in  the  brine  four  to 
six  weeks ;  hams  six  to  eight  weeks. 


SWINE  377 

Dry  cured  pork. —  For  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat  use : 

Seven  pounds  of  salt,  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  two 
ounces  of  salti:)eter. 

Four  to  eight  pounds  of  salt,  two  to  three  pounds  of  sugar  or 
warm  siru]^,  one  to  two  ounces  saltpeter,  three  to  six  ounces 
black  pepper,  two  ounces  red  pepper. 

Apply  the  dry  cure  in  three  installments,  four  or  five  days 
apart.    Kub  it  in  well. 

Sausage. —  Sausage  may  be  made  as  follows :  Use  only  clean, 
fresh  meat,  three  parts  of  lean  meat  to  one  part  of  fat.  Beef 
may  be  added,  if  desired. 

For  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat  use :  one  and  one-half 
to  two  pounds  of  salt,  one  to  two  ounces  of  fine  sage,  one-half  to 
one  ounce  of  ground  nutmeg,  four  ounces  of  black  pepper. 

Use  the  above  as  a  guide  and  season  to  taste. 

DISEASES  OF  SWINE 

By  I)k.  J.  II.  IIE^nTT,  D.V.M. 

Cold. —  Caused  by  catching  cold  from  exposure  or  being  in 
damp  quarters.  Give  one  teaspoonful  of  the  following  three 
times  daily: 

Tincture  of  aconite one-half  ounce 

F.  E.  belladonna one-half  ounce 

Saltpeter one  ounce 

Ammonium  chloride one  ounce 

Water  to  make eight  ounces 

Snuffles. —  Causes  same  as  for  cold.  Put  in  dry,  warm  quar- 
ters and  give  treatment  as  for  colds. 

Constipation. —  See  horse. 

Diarrhoea. —  See  horse. 

Indigestion. —  Caused  from  overfeeding  or  poor  foods,  expos- 
ure, chilling;  animal  loses  appetite  and  appears  to  be  in  pain, 
shows  more  on  movement.  Give  a  large  hog  four  ounces 
castor  oil  followed  l)y  one  teaspoonful  three  times  daily  of  the 
following : 

Sodium  sulphate   two  ounces 

Sodium  bicarbonate    two  ounces 

Sulphur one  ounce 

Salt    one  ounce 

Fits  are  generally  caused  from  worms.  Give  tlie  following  for 
four  days : 

Castor  oil    one  tablespoonful 

Turpentine    fifteen  drops 


378  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

This  is  for  pig  one  month  old. 

Worms  are  very  common  in  pigs,  causing  an  mithriftiness  and 
stopping  the  growth.  Give  hardwood  ashes  occasionally,  also 
the  following  for  a  four-months-old  pig  daily  for  four  days : 

Castor  oil   one-half  ounce 

Turpentine    ....'. one  teaspoonful 

Rheumatism,  a  very  common  disease  in  cold  weather,  due  to 
cold  and  dampness  combined.  Provide  dry,  warm  quarters  w^ith 
plenty  of  bedding ;  also  give  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salicylate  of 
soda  in  a  little  milk  three  times  daily. 

Hog  cholera. — The  most  contagious  disease  of  swine  and  the 
one  that  causes  the  greatest  loss.  It  is  caused  by  a  germ  that  is 
readily  spread  from  one  to  another  or  from  one  herd  to  another. 
This  germ  does  not  fly  in  the  air,  so  must  be  carried  in  some 
way.  Dogs,  clothing,  manure,  sleighs  and  wagons,  stone  boats 
used  in  burying  dead,  are  all  common  carriers.  When  the  dis- 
ease breaks  out,  separate  the  sick  from  the  well  and  vaccinate 
the  Avell.  This  latter  operation  will  probably  in  most  cases  have 
to  be  done  by  a  veterinarian,  who  Avill  know  the  best  methods  to 
use.  The  symptoms  are  dullness,  high  fever,  hiding  under  litter, 
red  blotches  showing  on  white  skin,  rapid  breathing  cough,  high 
death  rate.  It  is  also  known  as  "Swine  Fever"  and  "Swine 
Plague. ' ' 

mZ/tr  TO  DO /r  CHOLEPA  ex/sts  /n  voc/p  ne/ghbop/^oou 

I.    CLEAN  yoa^  PENS.  BOffN/iLL  UTTEP  AND  SPRAV  PEOULAPL  Y  l^/T/^ 

/  PAPT  OF  COMPOaNO  CPEOSOL  SOLUT/ON  TO  30PAPTS  MV/JTEP. 
2    CONFINE  Y0aPN06S  TO  LIMITED  QUAPTERS.AtVAY  FPOM  STPEAAfS 

AND  OTNEP  POSSIBLE  EXPOSURE. 
3.  HOLD  NEtV  STOCN  AND  STOCN"  PETUPN/NS  FPOAf  SNOy/S //^  SEPA- 

PATE  PENS  FOP  /£  DAYS >4ND D/PBEFOPE PETUPN/NS  TO  NEPD. 
4-.   D/S/NFECT  YOCIP  SNOES,  NOPSES  FEET,  kYASONS  AND  OTNEP  EQU/PMENT 

BEFOPE  PETUPN/N6  FPOM  STOCK  Y/^PDS  OP /NFECTED  FAPM  PPEAf/SES. 

6.  KEEP  P/SEONS,  CPOy/S  AND  B(/ZZAPDS  Ay/AYFPOA/  VVC/P  PPEAf/SES. 
e.  TIE  UP  YOUP  DOG. 

7.  SOPN  ALL  AN/MALS  TNAT  D/E  ON  YOUP  FAPM. 

6.  NOTIFY  YOUP  NEIGNBOP  TO  KEEPy^fYAiyAND  FOLWIT/IBOtYE  PPECAOT/O/^. 
9.   IF  CHOLEPA  APPEAPS  /N  YOC/P  NEPD,  CONT/NUE  ABOk'E  PPECAUT/ONS 
ANO  TPEAT  yy/TH  SEPUM  OP  SEPUM  AND  y/Pi/S 


CHAPTER   XIX 

THE  CURIXG  OF  :MEATS  OX  THE  FARM' 

Keeping  fresh  meats.—  Since  certain  parts  of  the  animal  car- 
cass are  more  vakiable  in  the  fresh  state  than  when  preserved, 
it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  various  methods  of  keeping  fresh 
meat  before  taking  up  methods  of  curing. 

' .  All  meat  to  be  preserved,  either  fresh  or  cured,  should  be  thor- 
oughly cooled  after  the  animal  is  slaughtered,  for  unless  this  is 
done  the  meat  will  not  cure  well  nor  will  it  be  possible  to  keep  it 
in  a  fresh  state  for  any  length  of  time. 

In  cold  weather,  meat  may  be  kept  by  hanging  it  in  a  dark,  cool 
place,  where  dogs,  cats,  and  rodents  cannot  reach  it.  If  a  tem- 
perature below  forty  degrees  F.  is  maintained,  meat  may  be 
kept  for  weeks;  l)ut  with  the  temperature  alternating  between 
low  and  high,  it  will  not  keep  well.  Meat  that  is  frozen  will  keep 
indefinitely  so  long  as  it  remains  frozen.  Alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  will  spoil  the  flavor  and  cause  early  decomposition.  It 
is  important  that  the  meat  be  kept  in  a  place  where  the  air  is 
dry.  A  dark,  cool  cellar,  or  an  attic  that  is  dry'  and  free  from 
odors,  is  the  proper  i)lace  for  keeping  meat  on  the  farm. 

Meat  packed  in  snow  may  be  kept  for  a  considerable  length  of 
time.  The  meat  should  first  be  frozen  hard.  After  it  is  frozen, 
an  earthen  jar  or  a  barrel  should  be  provided,  and  a  thick  layer 
of  snow  should  be  tamped  tightly  in  the  bottom  of  this.  On  the 
snow  a  layer  of  meat  is  packed,  and  covered  Avith  another  layer 
of  snow.  Care  mmst  be  taken  to  have  a  thick  layer  of  snow  be- 
tween the  meat  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  receptacle.  Another 
layer  of  meat  is  then  put  on,  and  another  layer  of  snow,  and  so 
on  until  all  the  meat  is  packed  or  the  jar  is  almost  full,  when  a 
heavy  covering  of  snow  should  be  put  on  top  and  covered  with 
a  block  or  some  other  object  in  order  to  keep  out  rats  and  mice. 
The  meat  may  be  taken  out  as  needed,  and  the  snow  should  be 
repacked  on  top  each  time. 

Another  method  that  is  connnonly  used  mtli  poi'k  and  sausage 
is  to  partly  cook  the  meat  by  frying  it  on  botli  sides,  pack  it  in  a 
jar,  and  pour  hot  lard  over  it  in  order  to  seal  the  whole  and  keep 
out  air.    The  meat  may  be  taken  out  as  needed.    Care  should  be 

•  By  permission  of  Xew  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

379 


380  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

taken  each  time  to  melt  the  lard  that  is  taken  off,  and  to  pour  it 
back. 

Curing  meats. — As  has  already  been  stated,  meat  should  be 
thoroughly  cooled  before  it  is  cured.  It  is  equally  important, 
however,  that  the  meat  shall  not  be  in  a  frozen  condition,  for  if 
it  is  frozen  the  brine  or  pickling  solution  cannot  penetrate  freely 
and  the  meat  will  not  be  of  even  flavor  throughout. 

Vessels. — The  vessels  used  for  curing  meats  are  of  various 
sorts  and  sizes,  depending  on  the  amount  of  meat  to  be  cured 
and  the  expense  to  which  the  owner  cares  to  go. 

Large  earthen  jars  or  crocks  give  the  best  results,  but  these 
are  somewhat  expensive  —  eight  to  ten  cents  per  gallon  of  capac- 
ity —  and  they  are  very  easily  broken  if  not  carefully  handled. 

Tight  hardwood  barrels  may  be  used.  New  barrels  or  barrels 
that  have  contained  molasses  should  be  used,  never  vinegar  or 
kerosene  barrels  unless  they  have  been  burned  out  on  the  inside. 
If  molasses  barrels  are  used  they  should  be  thoroughly  scalded. 

Chemicals  used  as  preservatives. — The  principal  preserva- 
tives used  are  salt,  sugar,  and  molasses,  and  their  combinations. 
Chemicals  forbidden  by  law  and  those  known  to  have  a  bad  effect 
on  health  should  not  be  used. 

Salt  preserves  meat  through  its  astringent  and  slightly  germi- 
cidal action.  It  hardens  the  muscle  fibers  and  draws  the  moist- 
ure from  the  meat. 

Sugar  and  molasses  have  an  almost  opposite  effect.  They 
cause  the  retention  of  the  moisture  of  the  meat,  and  keep  the 
muscle  fibers  soft  and  tender.  Therefore,  salt  and  sugar  are 
commonly  used  together,  as  the  sugar  gives  a  desirable  flavor 
and  prevents  the  hardening  action  of  the  salt. 

Saltpeter  is  often  used  to  retain  the  natural  reddish  color  of 
the  meat.  It  is  detrimental  to  health  and  should  be  used  spar- 
ingly if  at  all. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  CURING  MEATS 

Pork 

Sugar-cured  hams,  bacons,  and  tongues 

Method  I. — After  the  meat  has  been  thoroughly  cooled,  the 
carcass  may  be  cut  up  and  cured.  Sugar-cured  pork  is  prefer- 
able to  dry-cured  pork  or  plain  salt  pork  because  of  its  pleasant 
flavor  and  because  the  meat  is  not  so  dry  and  hard.  Beef  tongues 
may  be  cured  in  the  same  pickle  with  the  pork.    All  the  xiork  car- 


THE  CURING  OF  MEATS  ON  THE  FARM        381 

cass  may  be  cured  except  the  loins,  which  are  used  fresh  for 
chops  and  roasts,  the  spareribs,  which  are  used  fresh,  and  the 
triniming-s,  which  are  used  for  lard  and  sausage.  The  hams, 
shoulders,  and  bacons  are  sugar-cured,  and  the  fat  backs  are  dry- 
cured  or  pickled  in  a  plain  salt  pickle. 

Before  the  meat  is  placed  in  pickle  or  salt,  all  corners  and 
ragged  edges  should  be  cut  off  and  used  for  sausage  and  lard. 
If  they  are  left  on  they  will  be  wasted,  for  they  will  be  thoroughly 
soaked  by  the  pickle  and  will  be  of  no  use. 

Rub  the  pork  thoroughly  with  salt  and  pack  it  in  a  cool  place 
over  night.  The  next  day  pack  it  in  a  barrel  or  an  earthen  jar, 
with  the  heaviest  hams  and  shoulders  at  the  bottom,  the  lighter 
hams  and  shoulders  next,  and  the  bacons  and  tongues  at  the  top. 

For  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat  Aveigh  out  ten  pounds 
of  salt,  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  and  two  ounces 
of  saltpeter.  Rub  these  together  thoroughly,  taking  care  that 
the  saltpeter  is  finely  powdered.  Dissolve  the  whole  by  stirring 
it  into  four*  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Allow  this  brine  to  cool 
thoroughly,  and  then  pour  it  over  the  meat.  If  it  does  not  en- 
tirely cover  the  meat,  add  more  water.  The  brine  should  cover 
the  meat  at  all  times.  The  meat  may  be  weighted  down  with  a 
block  if  necessary,  for  if  it  is  not  covered  the  projecting  meat 
will  decompose  in  a  short  time. 

If  the  brine  shows  signs  of  fermenting  during  the  curing  pro- 
cess, it  should  be  drawn  off,  boiled,  and  cooled,  and  then  poured 
back  on  the  meat. 

The  bacons  and  tongues  may  be  taken  from  the  pickle  after 
four  to  six  weeks,  and  after  being  washed  in  warm  water  they 
may  be  hung  in  the  smokehouse  and  smoked.  The  lighter  hams 
and  shoulders  will  be  ready  to  take  out  of  the  pickle  in  six  to 
eight  weeks,  and  the  heavier  ones  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  week. 

Method  11. — Another  recipe  for  sugar-cured  hams,  bacons,  and 
tongues  that  has  given  good  results  is  as  follows : 

Pack  the  thoroughly  cooled  meat  in  a  cool,  dry  place,  on  a  table 
that  has  previously  been  covered  with  a  layer  of  salt.  Sprinkle 
salt  over  each  piece  of  meat,  and  add  alternate  layers  of  meat 
and  layers  of  salt  until  all  is  packed. 

Allow  the  meat  to  remain  in  the  salt  for  eight  to  ten  days,  and 
then  wash  off  the  salt  with  lukewarm  water.  The  meat  is  now 
ready  to  go  into  the  pickle,  Avhich  is  mixed  as  follows :  To  eigh- 
teen gallons  of  Avater  add  five  pounds  of  brown  sugar,  a  small 
handful  of  saltpeter,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  ginger.  Stir  the 
mixture  until  the  solids  are  all  dissolved,  and  then  stir  in  twelve 


382  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  I ARMERS 

pounds  of  salt.  Stir  until  all  the  salt  is  dissolved.  This  amount 
can  be  increased  or  decreased  according  to  the  amount  of  meat 
to  be  pickled.  Ordinarily  one-fourth  of  this  mixture  will  be 
enough  for  one  hundred  pounds  of  pork. 

The  pickle  should  test  seventy-five  degrees  with  the  hydro- 
meter test.  If  a  hydrometer  is  not  at  hand,  drop  a  fresh  egg 
into  the  pickle;  if  the  egg  floats  almost  submerged,  the  brine  is 
of  the  proper  strength. 

Pack  the  meat  in  a  barrel  or  a  jar,  with  hams  and  shoulders 
weighing  over  ten  pounds  on  the  bottom,  those  weighing  less 
than  ten  pounds  next,  and  the  bacon  strips  and  tongues  on  top. 
Pour  the  brine  over  the  meat  so  that  it  is  all  covered,  and  weight 
it  with  a  block  so  that  none  of  the  meat  projects  from  the  brine. 

The  bacons  and  tongues  may  be  removed  from  the  brine  at  the 
end  of  three  weeks,  the  lighter  hams  and  shoulders  at  the  end 
of  five  weeks,  and  the  heaviest  ones  after  six  to  seven  weeks. 
After  the  meat  is  removed  from  the  brine,  it  should  be  washed 
in  warm  water  in  order  to  remove  the  crust  of  brine  and  any 
scum  that  may  have  formed,  and  after  drying  for  an  hour  or 
more  it  may  be  hung  in  the  smokehouse  and  smoked. 

Brine  salt  pork. —  Pack  thoroughly  cooled  pork  in  a  barrel  or 
a  jar  after  having  rubbed  each  piece  with  salt.  The  following 
day  weigh  out  for  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  meat  ten  pounds 
of  salt  and  two  ounces  of  saltpeter.  Mix  these,  and  dissolve  the 
mixture  in  four  gallons  of  boiling  water.  Allow  this  brine  to  cool 
thoroughly,  and  pour  it  over  the  meat  in  the  barrel.  Place  a 
block  on  top  in  order  to  keep  the  meat  submerged. 

Fat  backs  are  ordinarily  used  for  salt  pork  cured  in  brine,  but 
any  part  of  the  carcass  may  be  cured  in  this  way.  The  meat 
cures  best  when  cut  in  strips  or  in  six-inch  squares. 

The  meat  should  be  left  in  the  brine  and  be  taken  out  as 
needed. 

Dry-cured  pork. —  To  dry-cure  meat  involves  more  work  than 
to  brine-cure  it,  although  it  is  a  little  less  expensive  in  some 
cases.  It  is  less  difficult  to  merely  salt  the  meat,  pack  in  a  jar, 
and  pour  the  brine  over  it,  than  to  rub  the  meat  several  times 
with  the  dry  mixture.  Also,  the  brine-cured  meat  is  not  so  dry 
and  is  a  little  more  palatable.  Brine-cured  meat  can  be  kept 
anywhere  as  long  as  it  is  kept  cool ;  dry-cured  meat,  on  the  other 
hands,  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  moist  place,  in  order  to  insure 
even  curing.  With  brine-cured  meat  there  is  no  danger  from 
rats  and  other  vermin ;  but  flies  must  be  kept  away  from  meat 
cured  in  either  way. 


THE  CURING  OF  MEATS  ON  THE  FARM        383 

In  dry-curing  pork,  weigh  out  for  every  one  hundred  pounds 
of  pork  six  j^ounds  of  salt  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  granu- 
lated sugar,  and  two  ounces  of  saltpeter,  and  mix  thoroughly. 
Divide  the  mixture  into  three  portions.  Rub  one  portion  on 
the  meat  the  first  day,  and  pack  the  meat  in  a  barrel.  Leave  it 
for  three  days.  At  the  end  of  the  three  days  take  the  meat  out 
of  the  barrel,  rub  it  with  a  second  portion  of  the  mixture,  and 
repack  it.  Three  days  later  rub  the  meat  with  the  third  and 
last  portion  of  the  mixture,  and  repack  it.  Let  it  stay  in  the 
barrel  for  ten  to  fourteen  days.  Then  remove  it,  Avash  it  in 
warm  water,  and  smoke  it. 

Corned  beef. — Method  I. —  Since  corned  beef  is  used  for  prac- 
tically the  same  dishes  as  fresh  beef,  only  wholesome,  untainted 
meat  should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Naturally,  the  choicer 
the  meat  that  is  put  into  the  pickle,  the  better  will  be  the  meat 
that  comes  out.  The  cheaper  cuts  of  beef  are  ordinarily  used  for 
corning,  because  the  choicer  cuts  are  more  palatable  in  a  fresh 
condition.  Plate,  flank,  shoulder,  chuck,  cross  ribs,  and  rump 
are  most  conmionly  used  for  corning. 

Frozen  meat  should  not  be  put  into  the  brine ;  neither  should 
the  brine  be  frozen  while  the  meat  is  in  it. 

Weigh  the  meat.  Cut  it  in  pieces  about  six  inches  square. 
Place  a  layer  of  salt  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  the 
meat  is  to  be  packed,  cover  this  with  a  layer  of  meat,  and 
sprinkle  a  layer  of  salt  over  the  meat.  Add  alternate  laj^ers  of 
meat  and  of  salt  until  the  meat  is  packed.  Seven  to  nine  pounds 
of  salt  will  usually  be  enough  for  100  pounds  of  meat.  Allow 
the  meat  to  stand  in  the  salt  over  night.  On  the  following  morn- 
ing make  a  brine,  using  five  pounds  of  sugar,  two  and  one-half 
ounces  of  baking  soda,  and  three  ounces  of  saltpeter  for  every 
100  pounds  of  meat.  Dissolve  these  ingredients  in  four  gallons 
of  boiling  water.  Allow  the  brine  to  cool  thoroughly  before 
pouring  it  over  the  meat.  If  more  or  less  than  100  pounds  of 
meat  is  to  be  cured,  use  these  proportions  for  the  brine.  If 
four  gallons  of  brine  does  not  entirely  cover  one  hundred  pounds 
of  meat,  water  may  be  added.  The  meat  should  be  weighted 
down  with  a  block  or  a  clean  stone,  since  any  part  that  is  not 
covered  with  the  brine  will  decompose  very  quickly. 

If  the  brine  shows  signs  of  fermentation  in  warm  weather, 
it  should  be  drawn  off,  boiled,  strained  through  a  clean  cloth, 
and,  after  it  is  thoroughly  cooled,  poured  back  on  the  meat. 

The  meat  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place.  At  the  end  of 
thirty  days  the  meat  will  be  ready  for  use.    If  the  pieces  are 


384  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

larger  than  six  inches  square,  a  longer  time  may  be  allowed, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  pieces. 

Method  II. — The  formula  given  under  Method  II  (page  381) 
for  sugar-cured  hams  and  bacons  may  be  used  for  corned  beef 
also. 

Smoking-  meats  on  the  farm. —  The  smoking  of  cured  meats 
aids  in  their  preservation  because  the  smoking  process  closes 
the  pores  of  the  meat  or  casings,  and  the  creosote  is  objection- 
able to  some  insects. 

Smoking  gives  a  desirable  flavor  to  the  meat  if  the  proper 
kind  of  fuel  is  used.  Green  hickory  is  best,  but  other  hardwoods 
or  corncobs  may  be  used  if  hickory  is  not  available.  Resinous 
woods  should  never  be  used,  as  they  give  an  objectionable  flavor 
to  the  meat.  Corncobs  are  commonly  used,  but  are  not  so  satis- 
factory as  hickory  because  of  the  fine  ash  that  is  forced  upward 
by  the  heat  settles  on  the  meat,  giving  it  a  dirty  appearance. 
Juniper  berries  and  fragrant  woods  are  sometimes  added  to  the 
fire,  to  give  desired  flavors. 

Proprietary  smoking  preparations  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, as  a  whole,  because  they  hasten  the  curing  process  and 
do  not  give  as  desirable  a  flavor  as  does  the  ordinary  smoking 
process.  Some  of  these  preparations  also  contain  substances 
that  cause  digestive  disorders  when  the  meat  is  eaten.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  various  dips  used  to  take  the  place  of 
smoking. 

The  sinohehouse. — The  smokehouse  may  be  of  any  size  or 
construction  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  owner.  If  the  house  is  to 
be  used  only  once  and  only  a  small  amount  of  meat  is  to  be 
smoked,  a  large  barrel  or  a  dry  goods  box  may  be  used.  If  the 
house  is  to  be  permanent,  it  is  often  worth  while  to  build  it  of 
brick,  concrete,  or  stone,  in  order  to  avoid  all  risk  of  loss  by 
fire.  A  frame  house  may  be  used,  provided  that  care  is  taken 
to  confine  the  fire  to  the  center  of  the  floor,  or  to  build  it  in  a 
large  iron  kettle,  so  that  it  will  not  spread  to  the  house.  The 
safest  method  of  smoking  meat,  and  at  the  same  time  of  pre- 
venting the  smokehouse  from  getting  too  hot,  is  to  dig  a  small 
furnace  pit  in  the  ground  about  ten  or  twelve  feet  from  the 
smokehouse,  and  have  the  smoke  carried  from  this  to  the  house 
through  a  galvanized  pipe  laid  on  top  of  the  ground  and  cov- 
ered so  that  it  will  not  be  crushed. 

The  method  of  construction  of  the  smokehouse  should  allow 
ample  ventilation,  and  there  should  be  some  means  of  regulating 
the  draft.    This  can  be  done  by  having  the  outlet  for  the  smoke 


THE  CUEING  OF  MEATS  ON  THE  FARM        385 

under  the  eaves  and  tlie  intake  for  the  air  at  the  furnace,  if  this 
is  used;  or,  if  the  furnace  or  outdoor  fire  method  is  not  used, 
an  adjustable  air  intake  may  be  attached  to  the  door  and  cov- 
ered with  a  heavy  screen  to  keep  out  flies  and  rats. 

For  ordinary  farm  use,  the  liouse  should  be  about  eight  feet 
square  and  eight  to  ten  feet  high,  so  that  the  meat  will  hang 
six  to  seven  feet  above  the  fire  and  near  enough  to  the  roof  to 
get  the  benefit  of  the  thick  smoke  and  yet  be  below  the  level  of 
the  ventilators. 

The  smoking  process. —  Meat  that  has  been  pickled  should  be 
removed  from  the  brine  at  least  a  day  before  it  is  to  be  smoked, 
and  after  being  washed  in  warm  water  it  should  be  hung  up  to 
dry  until  it  is  ready  to  smoke.  The  meat  should  be  hung  in 
the  smokehouse,  Avith  no  two  pieces  touching  each  other,  and 
then  a  fir.e  should  be  started,  heating  the  house  gradually.  The 
meat  should  be  kept  warm,  but  not  hot  enough  to  dry  the  out- 
side too  much  and  prevent  the  smoke  from  penetrating.  There 
should  be  as  much  smoke  as  possible,  but  no  more  heat*  than  is 
necessary. 

In  winter  the  fire  should  be  kept  burning  constantly  until  the 
smoking  is  completed,  for  if  the  meat  is  allowed  to  cool  too  nmch 
the  smoke  will  not  penetrate  it.  Meat  that  has  been  frozen 
should  not  be  put  into  the  smokehouse  until  it  is  thawed. 

In  warm  weather  there  is  danger  of  getting  the  meat  too 
hot,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  good  practice  to  let  the  fire 
die  doA\ni  every  other  day  until  the  meat  has  become  properly 
smoked. 

After  the  meat  has  become  properly  colored,  it  should  be 
cooled  (but  not  allowed  to  freeze)  by  opening  the  ventilator  on 
the  door,  leaving  it  open  mitil  the  meat  hardens.  It  may  then 
be  packed  away  for  future  use.  If  warm  hams  are  piled  one 
upon  another  before  they  are  cooled  sweating  occurs  where  the 
two  touch,  and  decomposition  soon  sets  in. 

The  meat  may  be  kept  in  the  smokehouse  for  a  time  if  the 
weather  is  not  too  warm,  but  tlie  house  should  be  kept  free  from 
flies. 

If  the  smoked  meat  is  to  be  used  immediately,  no  further  care 
is  needed ;  but  if  it  to  be  held  until  smmner  it  should  be  wrapped 
in  clean,  white  paper,  and  a  covering  of  muslin  sewed  on  to 
protect  it  from  insects.  It  should  be  kept  where  it  will  not  be 
subject  to  extreme  change  of  temperature  or  to  dampness. 

If  the  meat  is  to  be  kept  for  a  consideral)le  length  of  time 
and  absolute  safe-keeping  is  desired,  the  following  directions, 


386  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

given  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  Farm- 
ers '  Bulletin  183,  page  37,  should  be  followed : 

^'For  absolute  safe-keeping  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time, 
it  is  essential  that  the  meat  be  thoroughly  cured.  After  it  is 
smoked  and  has  become  dry  on  the  surface  it  should  be  wrapped 
in  parchment  paper;  or  old  newspapers  will  do  where  parch- 
ment cannot  be  had.  Then  inclose  in  heavy  muslin  or  canvas, 
and  cover  with  yellow  wash  or  ordinary  lime  whitewash,  glue 
being  added.  Hang  each  piece  out  so  that  it  does  not  come  in 
contact  with  other  pieces.    Do  not  stack  in  piles. 

''Receipt  for  yellow  wash. —  For  one  hundred  pounds  of  hams 
or  bacon  take 

3  pounds  barytes  (barium  sulphate) 
0.06  pound  glue 

0.08  pound  chrome  yellow  (lead  chromate) 
0.40  pound  flour. 

"Half  fill  a  pail  with  water  and  mix  in  the  flour,  dissolving  all 
lumps  thoroughly.  Dissolve  the  chrome  in  a  quart  of  water  in 
a  separate  vessel  and  add  the  solution  and  the  glue  to  the  flour ; 
bring  the  whole  to  a  boil  and  add  the  barytes  slowly,  stirring 
constantly.  Make  the  wash  the  day  before  it  is  required.  Stir 
it  frequently  when  using,  and  apply  with  a  brush." 


CHAPTER   XX 

BEES  ON  THE  FARM 
By  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph.D.* 

There  are  few  animals  on  the  farm  more  interesting  than 
honey  bees  if  their  activities  are  watched.  They  are  also  profit- 
able.   Before  undertaking  to  keep  bees  in  connection  with  other 


Fig,  196. —  In  the  Canyon  of  Southern  California  beekeeping  is  profitable. 

farming  operations,  it  is  well  to  look  over  the  requirements  of 
beekeeping  to  see  whether  this  branch  of  agriculture  will  com- 
bine with  the  other  work.  Bees  require  considerable  attention 
if  they  are  to  be  made  profitable,  and  this  care  must  be  given 
at  the  right  time. 

It  is  first  necessary  to  learn  from  some  local  beekeeper  or 
elsewhere  just  what  plants  are  the  most  dependable  as  local 


Bee  Expert,  Washington,  D.  C. 


387 


388  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

sources  of  nectar.  The  bees  will  need  care  when  these  plants 
bloom  and,  having  determined  when  this  is,  the  next  question 
is  whether  at  that  particular  time  other  farm  operations  will 
occupy  all  the  time  of  the  person  on  whom  the  care  of  the 
bees  will  fall.  If  the  bees  will  be  neglected  at  swarming  time 
because  of  other  more  pressing  work,  it  will  be  better  not  to 
keep  them. 

Beekeeping  is  a  branch  of  agriculture  which  requires  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  specialization  and  it  rarely  pays  to  have  a  few 
colonies  with  a  view  merely  to  getting  some  honey  for  home 
use.  Side  line  beekeeping  was  conmion  years  ago  in  some  parts 
of  the  country  and  there  were  bees  on  almost  every  farm,  but 
diseases  of  the  brood  of  bees,  now  widespread  in  the  United 


ir>7. — ^A  commercial  apiary  in  Florida. 


States,  make  this  unprofitable.  The  bee  owner  who  does  not 
give  bees  the  needed  attention  never  gets  a  full  crop  but  may 
get  a  little  honey  in  years  of  plenty.  In  lean  years  his  bees  often 
starve,  even  though  the  good  beekeepers  of  the  region  are  get- 
ting a  fair  crop. 

Location. —  The  bees  should  be  protected  from  the  prevailing 
winds  of  winter  and  be  so  placed  that  they  will  not  disturb 
passers-by.    They  may  be  protected  from  the  heat  of  the  sun 


BEES  ON  THE  FAKM 


389 


in  summer,  but  it  is  preferable  that  they  get  sunshine  early  in 
the  morning. 

Equipment. —  It  does  not  pay  to  keep  bees  in  boxes  or  hollow 
logs  C^gmns"),  nor  in  hives  in  which  the  frames  are  immov- 
able. The  ten-frame  Lang- 
stroth  hive  is  standard  for 
America  and  by  its  use  the 
beekeeper  can  help  the  bees 
to  do  their  work  better.  All 
parts  of  the  hives  should 
be  interchangeable  and  ac- 
curately cut.  Additional 
equipment  Avill  depend  on 
the  kind  of  honey  produced. 
For  comb-honey  there 
should  be  at  least  three 
shallow  supers  for  each 
hive  and  more  will  usually 
be  needed  if  the  bees  are 
properly  kept.  For  ex- 
tracted honey  three  full 
depth  supers  should  be  pro- 
vided for  each  colony.  A  veil  should  cover  the  face  when  the 
bees  are  handled  and  a  good  smoker  will  subdue  them.  All 
necessary  equipment  can  be  obtained  from  the  numerous  dealers 
in  supplies  and  every  beekeeper  should  have  a  supply  catalog. 

Unless  one  is  an  expert 


Bee  vt'il  with  silk-tullc  front. 


woodworker   it 
pay    to    make 


Fig.  100. —  Knives  for  uncapping  honey. 


does   not 
hives    at 
home. 
Behavior  of  the  bees. — 

The  most  important  part 
of  the  beekeeper's  equip- 
This  can  come  only  through 


ment  is  his  knowledge  of  the  bees, 
study  of  the  extensive  literature  on  beekeeping,  supplemented 
by  observations  on  the  bees  themselves.  It  is  impossible  in  the 
short  space  of  this  article  to  go  deeply  into  this  subject. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  bees  in  the  colony:  (1)  The  queen 
whose  function  it  is  to  lay  the  eggs  for  the  colony,  sometimes 
as  many  as  3,500  a  day,  but  who  is  in  no  sense  the  director  of 
the  colony  activity;  (2)  the  thousands  of  worker  bees,  sexually 
undeveloped  females,  which  do  the  inside  and  outside  work  of 
the  colony,  and  (3)  the  drones  or  males  which  mate  vnth  the 


390  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  200, 


■Pan   in   super  arranged 
feeding. 


young  queens,  they  being  driven  from  the  hive  later.  These  bees 
all  live  together  on  combs  composed  of  wax  secreted  by  the 
workers  and  they  are  normally  sheltered  from  wind  and  weather 

in  some  cavity,  in  the  hands  of 
man  in  a  hive. 

The  population  of  the  hive 
is  constantly  changing  as  the 
workers  die  rapidly  from  work 
and  are  replaced  by  bees  newly 
emerging  from  the  brood.  The 
queen  bees  may  live  for  sev- 
eral years,  but  the  good  bee- 
keeper provides  young  queens 
every  year  or  at  most  every 
two  years.  If  the  bees  rear 
their  own  queens  there  is  a  loss 
in  the  honey  crop  at  the  times 
when  the  queens  are  old  and 
cannot  lay  sufficient  eggs. 

Bees  are  creatures  of  instinct 
and  their  marvelous  activities 
are  not  the  products  of  intelligence.  It  is  then  most  important 
that  beekeepers  know  how  these  instincts  operate  in  order  to 
plan  the  environment  so  as  to  take  full  advantage  of  instincts 
which  are  advanta- 
geous. The  storing  of 
honey  is  a  beneficial  in- 
stinct while  swarming 
is  one  which  is  not  good 
from  the  standpoint  of 
the  beekeeper.  Methods 
for  taking  advantage  of 
the  beneficial  instincts 
are  well  worked  out  and 
are  described  at  length 
in  the  books  on  the  sub- 
ject 

What  the  beekeeper 
does.  —  In   directing 
these  instincts,  the  bee- 
keeper does  two  things:    (1)  He  gives  the  bees   such  condi- 
tions that  they  breed  up  rapidly  before  the  honey-flow,  and  (2) 


Fig.  201.— Feeder  set  in  collar  under  hive  body. 


BEES  ON  THE  FARM 


391 


he  prevents  the  bees  from  dividing  their  gathering  force  by 
swarming  before  or  during  the  honey  flow. 

To  accomplish  the  first  purpose,  he  protects  the  bees  well 
during  the  winter  wherever  the  temperature  often  falls  to  the 
freezing  point,  gives  them  an  abundance  of  honey  for  this  sea- 
son and  for  early  spring,  and  provides  each  colony  with  a  good 
young  queen.  If  the  bees  are  not  cramped  for  room  in  the 
spring  they  will  then  reach  their  maximum  population-  in  time 
even  for  an  early  honey-flow.  Beekeepers  who  have  a  few  colo- 
nies as  a  side-line  rarely  have  full  colonies  soon  enough,  and 
even  many  specialist  beekeepers 
fail  in  this  regard.  Wintering  is 
the  most  important  problem  in 
beekeeping  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  fully  dis- 
cussed in  bulletins  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

To  prevent  the  bees  from  swarm- 
ing involves  more  details  than  can 
be  discussed  here,  but  bees  must 
have  plenty  of  room  in  the  brood- 
chamber,  ventilation,  adequate 
space  for  incoming  honey  and 
every  other  condition  ideal  for 
gathering.  Directions  will  be 
found  in  the  literature  for  making 
the  most  of  a  swarm  if  one  should 
issue,  but  the  beekeeper's  ideal  is  to  keep  them  even  from 
making  an  effort  in  this  direction. 

The  honey-flow. —  With  tlie  care  indicated  the  colonies  will 
come  to  the  beginning  of  the  honey-flow  with  full  strength.  It 
is  poor  beekeeping  to  alloAV  colonies  to  increase  in  strength  at 
the  expense  of  the  crop.  The  next  problem  is  to  see  that  they 
have  the  proper  space  in  which  to  store  the  honey.  Most  bee- 
keepers with  a  few  colonies  now  give  each  colony  a  single  super, 
perhaps  going  back  to  put  on  another  when  the  first  is  entirely 
filled.  This  may  result  in  a  loss  of  from  half  to  three-fourths 
of  the  crop,  for  room  must  always  be  given  before  it  is  needed 
or  the  bees  will  decrease  their  gathering.  As  soon  as  they  have 
begun  to  fill  the  first  super,  another  should  be  placed  underneath 
the  first  and  this  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary.  A 
good  beekeeper  often  has  four  or  five  supers  filled  before  the 
negligent  beekeeper  has  the  first  one  full.    In  comb-honey  pro- 


FlG. 


202. —  "  Pepper-box  "  feeder  for 
use  on  top  of  frames. 


392  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


duction  supers  should  not  be  added  too  fast  or  the  bees  will  not 
fill  the  sections  nicely.  Obviously  during  the  honey-flow  the 
bees  need  care  and  unless  they  can  receive  it  it  is  better  not  to 
have  them.    There  is,  however,  little  work  on  the  farm  which 

pays  better  for  the  time 
spent  than  does  beekeeping. 
In  years  when  there  is  little 
honey  the  bees  require  little 
attention,  except  to  see  that 
they  do  not  starve,  so  that 
the  beekeeper  works  when  it 
pays  him  best. 

Race  of  bees. —  There  are 
several  races  of  bees,  but 
there  is  none  which  sur- 
passes the  Italian.  The  com- 
mon black  or  German  bees 
are  exceedingly  poor  and 
should  not  be  tolerated  in 
the  apiary.  Care  is  neces- 
sary in  keeping  the  bees 
pure,  for  there  are  usually 
plenty  of  colonies  of  black 
bees  in  the  woods  or  in 
poor  apiaries  and  the  young 
queens  may  mate  with  the 
inferior  drones.  By  culling 
out  the  hybrid  stock  the  bee- 
keeper can  keep  his  bees 
pure  bred. 

Diseases  of  bees. —  Men- 
tion was  made  of  two  serious 
diseases  of  bees.  Both  are 
bacterial  diseases  which  at- 
tack the  developing  brood 
and  not  adult  bees.  Hidden 
thus  in  the  hive,  they  often  escape  the  notice  of  the  unobservant 
beekeeper.  The  beekeeper  should  constantly  watch  for  any 
dead  or  discolored  brood,  and  if  any  is  found  he  should  send  a 
sample  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  examination.  It 
is  better,  however,  to  know  something  about  the  diseases  in 
advance.    It  is  wise  to  make  inquiry  of  thorough  beekeepers  in 


Fig.  203. — A  ten-frame  hive  with  comb-honey 
super  and  perforated  zinc  queen  ex- 
cluder.— U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


BEES  OX  THE  FARM 


393 


the  region  or  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  regarding  the 
probable  amount  of  disease  in  the  neighborhood. 

Value  of  bees  to  agriculture. —  Beekeeping  forms  a  branch  of 
agriculture  which  adds  to  the  food  of  the  nation  to  the  value  of 
millions  of  dollars.  The  business  is  becoming  a  specialty  and 
many  are  making  it  their  chief  work.  The  amount  of  sugar  in 
nectar  secreted  by  the  multitude  of  plants  on  every  hand  far 
exceeds  the  entire  amount  of  sugar  of  all  kinds  consmned  by  the 
American  people.  Honey  production  is  the  means  of  saving 
some  of  this  vast  store  of  sugar  for  human  use.  The  raw  mate- 
rial costs  nothing,  the  work  is  well  i3aid  for  by  the  returns  and 


ABC 

Fig.  204. — A,  worker;  B,  queen;  C,  drone. 

there  is  every  reason  why  bees  should  be  increased  and  kept 
efficiently. 

The  honey  produced  is,  however,  not  the  main  value  of  bees, 
for  they  add  more  to  the  wealth  of  the  nation  through  their 
function  as  carriers  of  pollen  from  flower  to  flower.  Cross-polli- 
nation is  necessary  in  some  species  and  varieties  of  plants,  is 
desirable  in  others  and  is  never  detrimental.  It  is  conservative 
to  state  that  through  cross-pollination  the  bees  are  several  times 
as  valuable  as  they  are  in  gathering  honey.  Cross-pollination  is 
brought  about  through  the  activities  of  many  insects,  but  the 
honey  bee  is  the  only  one  which  can  be  moved  to  the  orchard  or 
which  can  be  propagated  by  man  with  profit.  It  therefore  occu- 
pies a  unique  position,  and  as  a  result  of  this  circumstance  there 
are  many  orchardists  who  take  up  beekeeping,  not  for  the  honey 


394  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

crop,  but  solely  for  the  work  of  carrying  pollen.  Aside  from  the 
fact  that  they  sting,  bees  have  no  bad  habits  which  make  them 
injurious.  It  has  been  claimed  that  they  carry  fireblight  of  the 
fruit  trees,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  other  insects  are  the  real 
culprits.  They  do  not  puncture  ripe  fruits  but  may  suck  the 
juices  of  overripe  unmarketable  fruit  which  has  been  punctured 
by  birds  or  wasps.    Bees  are  truly  helpful  insects. 


i 

I 


CHAPTER   XXI 

THE  FARMER'S  WOOD  LOT 
By  R.  p.  Pritchard,  M.F.» 

Value.' —  On  nearly  every  farm  there  is  an  area  of  greater  or 
less  extent  that  is  not  suited  to  the  growing  of  farm  crops.  It  is 
too  rough,  stony  or  steep,  or  the  soil  is  too  thin  or  too  wet.  This 
is  the  area  on  which  the  farmer  should  practice  forestry.  A 
permanent  crop  of  forest  trees  should  be  kept  on  such  an  area, 
so  that  it  may  produce  a  definite  annual  yield  or  income.  He  is 
a  very  unprogressive  farmer  indeed  who  doubts  the  value  of 
the  farm  wood  lot. 

It  enhances  the  value  of  his  farm  and  makes  it  more  salable. 

It  is  a  reserve  fund,  and  may  furnish  him  with  ready  cash  in 
time  of  need. 

It  is  valuable  for  recreation  purposes,  and  in  some  localities 
may  furnish  a  steady  income  from  this  source  alone. 

It  furnishes  work  in  the  winter  months  for  the  owner  or  for 
his  men  and  teams. 

It  furnishes  him  with  fire  wood,  posts,  poles,  and  lumber  at  a 
very  great  saving  over  the  market  price. 

The  country  to-day  is  dependent  almost  entirely  on  the  wood 
lot  for  a  good  many  valuable  species  like  white  oak,  black  walnut, 
black  cherry. 

A  good  farm  wood  lot  may  be  regarded  as  money  in  the  bank, 
and  the  amount  of  growth  each  year  as  interest  on  this  capital. 
If  you  misuse  the  wood  lot,  or  damage  its  growth,  then  you  are 
spending  more  than  your  income  and  cutting  into  your  capital. 
At  the  present  time  there  is  great  need  of  building  all  over  the 
country.  The  price  of  lumber  is  higher  than  ever  before,  and  a 
good  Avood  lot  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

Protection. —  If  you  have  been  neglecting  your  wood  lot,  start 
now  and  consider  the  following  things  every  time  you  go  into  it, 
so  that  you  may  get  the  largest  amount  of  interest  possible  on 
your  capital  invested. 

Any  trees  of  desirable  species  under  twenty-five  years  of  age  ? 
No  ?  Then  keep  out  the  fires,  keep  out  the  stock,  quit  cutting  out 
the  best  trees  and  plant  some  young  desirable  trees  every  time 

^  Assistant  Professor  of  Silviculture,  N"  Y.  State  College  of  Forestry. 

395 


396  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


you  take  out  the  mature  ones.  That 's  the  whole  thing  in  a  nut- 
shell, and  if  you  do  this  you  will  be  safeguarding  the  future  of 
your  woodlot. 

You  can  do  a  whole  lot  towards  insuring  yourself  against 
fire  by 

1.  Gathering  up  the  debris  and  burning  it  during  the  wet 
season,  or  by  gathering  it  into  low  piles  with  the  stems  on  the 
ground  so  as  to  hasten  its  decay. 

2.  Plo^^^ng  several  furrows  around  the  outside,  so  as  to  keep 
out  grass  fires. 

As  for  grazing  you  must  decide  between  your  wood  lot  and 


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m 

S^^p- 

.:iW^..l.«t«| 

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m^ 

f^^^^^f^*^ 

mi^l^s^!^^^m 

Fig.  205. —  Typical  woodlot  conditions.     TTardwonds;  in  iieod  of  thinning,  cleaning 
and  planting. — Photo  hy  H.  II.  Tnjon. 

your  stock.    If  you  must  let  them  in  then  the  future  of  your  wood 
lot  is  destro^^ed.    Keep  them  out  and  give  it  a  chance. 

Improvements. —  The  next  time  you  make  a  cutting  in  your 
wood  lot  use  the  following  scheme : 

1.  Do  not  cut  a  well-formed  tree  of  a  desirable  species,  unless 
it  is  absolutely  the  only  one  that  will  fill  a  special  use.  If  you 
want  a  chicken  for  dinner  you  do  not  take  the  one  that  lays  the 
most  eggs.    Use  the  same  reasoning  power  in  cutting  your  trees. 

2.  Cut  the  old,  crooked,  and  misshapen  trees  first.  They  will 
perve  many  purposes  equally  well  as  the  best. 

3.  Look  for  the  undesirable  species  and  cut  them.  They  are 
the  forest  weeds.  Red  maple,  gray  birch,  ironwood,  dog\vood 
come  under  this  head, 


THE  FARMER'S  WOOD  LOT  397 

4.  Look  for  the  trees  that  are  beginning  to  rot.  They  will 
have  shelf-like  brackets  or  toadstools  growing  on  the  sides. 
These  are  the  fruiting  bodies  of  some  fungous  disease.  They 
will  produce  millions  of  tiny  spores,  that  will  be  blown  around 
by  the  \^dnd  looking  for  wounds  or  openings  in  the  bark  of  other 
trees.  There  is  no  practical  way  to  fight  these  fungi  in  the  wood 
lot  except  to  keep  the  trees  healthy,  and  the  bark  free  from 
damage.  The  infected  trees  are  enemies  to  the  others.  Cut 
them  out. 

5.  Look  for  the  trees  that  are  infected  with  injurious  insects. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  forest-destroying  insects  that  strip  off 
the  leaves,  destroy  the  bark  or  wood.  Individual  trees  of  great 
value  can  be  successfully  protected  against  these  insects  by 
intensive  methods.  In  general,  however,  it  is  best  to  cut  the 
infested  trees  out  to  better  protect  the  others. 

6.  Cut  all  dead  trees  and  rotting  stumps  and  branches.  They 
are  breeding  places  for  both  fungi  and  insects,  and  are  enemies 
to  your  wood  lot. 

7.  Distribute  your  cuttings  over  the  whole  wood  lot  or  a  part 
of  it.  Do  not  cut  all  in  one  place.  It  makes  too  big  a  hole  in  the 
canopy  or  "roof,"  and  lets  the  soil  dry  out.  This  tends  to  keep 
out  the  natural  reproduction  of  the  species  that  you  want. 
Cutting  around  the  edge  also  lets  in  too  much  wind.  Keep  as 
dense  growth  as  possible  on  the  boundary  of  the  wood  lot. 

8.  If  for  some  reason  you  must  clear  out  your  wood  lot,  or 
have  cut  too  heavy  in  one  place,  plant  it  up  with  wild  or  nursery 
grown  stock.  If  you  do  not,  it  will  become  waste  land,  or  become 
restocked  by  worthless  growth.  Keep  the  best  species  there  by 
planting  when  necessar^^ 

9.  Do  not  cut  too  heavy  over  the  wood  lot.  It  may  cause  loss 
by  windfall,  and  too  rapid  drying  of  the  soil.  It  means  that  you 
are  taking  out  some  of  your  capital,  when  it  is  desirable  to  take 
out  only  the  interest.  The  amount  that  can  be  safely  cut  each 
year  is  the  amount  that  is  added  by  new  growth.  The  forester, 
by  means  of  growth  and  yield  studies  for  a  definite  tract,  can 
tell  exactly  what  this  amount  should  be.  For  the  Average  Avood 
lot  it  is  probably  between  two  cords  and  one  cord  per  acre  per 
year.  You  can  start  with  that  as  a  basis,  and  keep  watch  of  the 
conditions  of  your  stand.  If  you  see  that  you  are  opening  it  up 
too  much,  do  not  cut  quite  as  much  next  time.  If  you  find  that 
it  is  getting  a  little  more  dense,  cut  a  little  more. 

10.  Make  each  tree  that  you  cut  serve  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  best  suited.    Convert  it  into  the  product  that  will  bring  the 


398  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

best  price.  If  a  certain  tree  is  suitable  for  railroad  ties,  or  for 
fence  posts,  do  not  cut  it  into  cordwood  unless  it  brings  a  better 
price  as  such.  If  a  tree  is  large  and  straight  enough  for  saw- 
logs,  see  to  it  that  it  is  made  into  saw-logs.  This  is  simply  the 
first  principle  of  economy  and  conservation,  and  should  be 
applied  to  the  Avood  lot  products,  as  well  as  any  other  product 
from  the  farm. 

11.    Use  your  head  in  felling  the  trees,  keeping  in  mind  the 
future  value  of  the  young  growth.   Drop  them  in  the  open  places 


Fig.  206. — Young  white  pine  plantation.     Trees  marked  for  tliinning. — Plioto  hy 

E.  H.  Tnjon. 


as  much  as  possible,  or  where  they  will  destroy  the  fewest 
number  of  saplings. 

12.  Use  a  little  thought,  too,  in  planning  your  skidways.  Have 
as  few  as  possible  and  destroy  only  such  3^oung  trees  as  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  Do  not  drag  3^our  logs  haphazard  through  the 
woods. 

13.  Cut  your  stmnps  low.  It  only  takes  a  little  more  effort 
and  may  result  in  a  great  savings  in  board  feet  or  cords. 

14.  Clean  up  the  tops  and  brush.  Do  not  leave  it  scattered 
about  to  increase  the  fire  danger. 

Follow  out  this  scheme  and  watch  your  wood  lot  improve. 
Think  what  an  advantage  it  would  be  to  have  an  ideal  wood  lot 
that  would  furnish  you  a  home-grown  product  for  every  use  to 
which  wood  is  put  on  the  farm. 


THE  FARMER  ^S  WOOD  LOT  399 

Reforestation. —  Suppose  your  wood  lot,  like  so  many  others, 
all  through  the  East,  has  been  neglected  and  abused,  so  that  it 
is  all  worn  out.  No  reproduction,  no  desiral)le  trees.  The  thing 
to  do  is  to  plant.  Suppose  you  have  some  waste  land  producing 
nothing.    Plant  it  up  to  forest  trees  and  make  it  do  its  share. 

It  is  not  practical  to  tell  you  here  just  what  species  to  plant. 
Each  farmer  has  more  or  less  of  a  special  problem,  and  he  ought 
to  get  a  forester's  advice  before  he  starts  to  plant.  Here  is  the 
idea.  He  wants  some  species  that  will  supply  a  local  demand  in 
a  reasonable  length  of  time.  At  the  same  time  the  species  must 
be  hardy  in  the  climate ;  adapted  to  the  situation ;  suited  to  the 
soil;  and  able  to  withstand  insect  and  fungous  attacks  with 
which  the  region  is  infected. 

As  a  rule  a  short  time  investment  is  the  most  profitable,  and  a 
rapidly  growing  species  is  needed.  Perhaps  there  is  a  pulp  mill 
near  by,  or  a  cheese  box  factory,  or  an  excelsior  mill.  If  so, 
Carolina  poplar,  which  is  a  very  rapid  gromng  tree,  can  be 
grown  at  a  profit. 

If  there  is  demand  for  box  boards,  white  pine  on  a  short  rota- 
tion will  fill  the  bill.  An  enormous  amount  of  this  species  is 
grown  on  small  areas  in  Massachusetts  for  this  purpose.  This 
tree  has  several  dangerous  enemies  that  may  make  it  unwise  to 
plant  in  certain  localities. 

If  there  is  a  willow  basket  and  furniture  factory  in  your  neigh- 
borhood see  if  you  cannot  raise  Avillows  for  them  at  a  profit. 
Consider  the  local  demand,  and  then  pick  a  species  that  will  fill 
it,  and  at  the  same  time  be  suited  to  the  region  and  the  locality. 

In  New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  the  conife- 
rous species  most  recommended  for  planting  are  the  White  pine. 
Red  pine,  Scotch  pine,  European  larch,  Norway  spruce,  and  White 
cedar.  Among  the  hardwoods  the  ones  most  used  are  the  White 
ash,  Yellow  poplar.  Sugar  maple,  Black  cherry,  Black  walnut, 
Carolina  poplar,  Red  oak,  Sycamore,  Basswood,  Black  locust, 
and  Catalpa.  The  last  two  species  are  recommended  for  fence 
posts  because  of  their  rapid  growth  and  durability.  However, 
with  the  approved  methods  of  timber  preservation  that  we  now 
have,  durability  may  be  sacrificed  for  rapidity  of  growth.  Thus 
Cottonwood  even  makes  excellent  fence  posts  when  treated  mth 
creosote. 

The  method  of  field  jilanting  is  simple.  The  soil  is  lifted  mth 
a  mattock,  the  roots  of  the  young  tree  placed  in  the  opening, 
and  the  soil  pressed  back  around  the  roots.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  roots  of  the  seedlings  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  out. 


400  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

When  received  if  not  planted  inunediately,  the  roots  should  be 
dipped  in  muddy  water,  placed  in  a  shallow  trench  and  covered 
with  soil.  In  planting  it  is  better  for  men  to  work  in  pairs.  One 
man  advances  in  a  straight  line,  and  digs  the  hole  with  the  mat- 
tock. The  other  follows  and  plants  the  young  trees  in  the  open- 
ings.   Two  men  should  plant  from  one-half  to  one  acre  in  a  day. 

The  usual  spacing  of  the  trees  is  six  feet  apart  in  the  rows, 
and  the  rows  six  feet  apart.  This  gives  1,210  trees  per  acre. 
By  cutting  down  this  spacing  to  four  feet  by  four  feet,  you 
double  the  nmnber  of  trees  per  acre,  getting  about  2,500.  If  you 
have  a  good  market  for  your  product  close  by,  and  can  go  in 
and  thin  out  your  stand  in  a  few  years,  and  sell  your  thinnings 
at  a  profit  then  it  is  advisable  to  plant  as  closely  as  that.  If  you 
cannot  thin  your  plantation  in  a  few  years,  and  want  to  wait  a 
little  longer  for  your  forest  conditions,  then  you  can  plant  wider 
than  six  feet  by  six  feet.  Spacing  the  trees  eight  feet  by  eight 
feet,  you  have  only  six  hundred  and  eight  trees  per  acre.  You 
will  not  have  to  thin,  but  your  trees  will  suffer  somewhat  in 
height  growth,  and  will  not  have  as  good  clear  length.  A  spacing 
of  six  feet  by  six  feet  seems  to  be  the  most  desirable  in  most 
cases. 

The  best  time  for  forest  planting  is  in  the  spring  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  Trees  may  also  be 
planted  in  the  fall  after  the  summer's  growth  has  been  com- 
pleted, i.  e.,  from  the  last  of  August  to  the  middle  of  October. 

It  is  often  practical  to  raise  the  young  trees  yourself,  right  on 
the  farm.  The  seed  is  sown  in  seed-beds.  The  tiny  trees  are  left 
in  the  seed-beds  one  to  three  years,  then  taken  out  and  placed  in 
transplant  rows  and  left  one  or  two  years  more.  They  are  then 
ready  to  be  planted  in  the  field.  They  can  also  be  purchased 
from  your  State  Forestry  Coimnission,  or  from  local  nursery- 
men. They  will  cost  about  four  dollars  per  thousand,  and  you 
can  figure  the  whole  cost  of  making  a  plantation  as  about  one 
cent  per  tree.  That  would  make  a  plantation  with  spacing  six 
by  six,  cost  twelve  dollars  per  acre;  four  by  four,  twenty-five 
dollars  per  acre ;  eight  by  eight,  seven  dollars  per  acre.  In  many 
cases  it  can  be  done  more  cheaply.  You  will  find  your  State 
Forestry  Commission  eager  to  cooperate  with  you  in  every  way 
if  you  have  some  land  to  plant  Avith  trees. 

Marketing. —  Maybe  you  have  a  large  wood  lot  on  Avhicli  many 
trees  are  ready  to  be  cut.  No  trouble  to  find  a  market.  If  you 
have  only  a  small  surplus  over  your  own  needs,  get  together  with 
a  few  of  your  neighbors  and  get  a  salable  amount.    In  the  next 


THE  FAKMER'S  WOOD  LOT 


401 


few  years  undoubtedly  many  Avood  lots  will  be  cut  by  the  portable 
sawmill.  A  practical,  portable  band  sawmill  has  been  devised, 
which  is  superior  in  ethciency,  and  grade  of  lumber  produced 
than  the  old  circular  saw  type.  In  the  World  AYar  the  American 
Forest  Engineers  were  equipped  with  at  least  fifty  of  these  mills. 
Uncle  Sam  is  now  selling  them  in  this  country  to  the  highest 
bidder.  The  amount  of  building  has  decreased  tremendously 
during  the  last  two  years,  because  of  the  war,  and  there  is  a  great 
shortage  of  dwellings,  and  all  kinds  of  buildings  throughout  the 
country.    The  price  of  all  building  materials  has  reached  new 


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Fig.  207. —  A  forest  properly  logged  under  the  Forest  Service 
Regulations.  The  young  growth  is  miinjured  and  the  brush 
is  piled  ready  for  burning. 

high  marks,  and  contractors  will  surely  turn  to  the  wood  lots 
for  lumber  for  local  building.  If  your  wood  lot  is  one  of  those 
to  be  cut,  bear  these  things  in  mind,  and  do  not  let  your  land 
be  stripped,  without  getting  the  most  out  of  it,  and  arranging 
for  its  future  productivity. 

If  your  trees  are  ready  for  the  market,  look  into  the  proposi- 
tion and  decide  whether  you  want  to  undertake  the  cutting  and 
hauling  to  the  mill  yourself,  or  whether  you  want  to  sell  the 
timber  on  the  stump.  Perhaps  you  can  do  both  the  cutting  and 
sawing  yourself.  You  might  be  able  to  buy  a  portable  sawnuill 
or  contract  with  one  to  do  the  sawing  for  you.  Local  conditions 
and  markets  will  enable  you  to  decide  these  things. 

If  you  have  a  large  amount  of  stumpage  to  sell,  get  a  correct 


402  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

idea  of  what  it  is  worth,  and  do  not  sell  too  cheaply.  A  great 
many  farmers  have  been  induced  to  part  with  their  timber  at 
half  its  actual  value,  because  they  did  not  know  any  different. 
Don't  be  satisfied  with  the  sawmill  man's  first  offer.  Get  a  for- 
ester, or  a  practical  woodsman  to  make  an  estimate  of  it.  Talk 
with  someone  who  knows,  and  investigate  the  price  of  stumpage 
and  lumber  in  your  locality.  Advertise  it  for  sale  to  highest 
bidder. 

The  best  way  is  to  agree  on  a  price  per  board  foot,  cord,  or 
other  unit,  and  have  it  all  measured,  and  paid  for  as  it  is  taken 
away.  That  is  the  way  the  United  States  Forest  Service  sells 
its  timber,  and  by  this  method  the  purchaser  gets  just  what  he 
pays  for  —  no  more,  and  no  less.  Have  the  agreement  in  the 
form  of  a  written  contract  stating  the  price,  terms,  method  of 
cutting,  and  all  the  details.    It  will  save  misunderstanding. 

Observe  these  elementary  principles  of  forestry  and  make 
your  wood  lot  a  paying  proposition  and  at  the  same  time  keep  it 
for  the  next  generation. 


CHAPTER   XXII 

LOCATION"  AND   ARRANGEMENT  OF   FARM   BUILDINGS 
By  Dr.  W.  T.  L.  Taliaferro,  D.Sc.> 

In  the  location  and  arrangement  of  farm  buildings,  the 
primary  considerations  are  sanitation,  efficiency,  economy,  con- 
venience and  appearance.  Each  of  these  must  be  considered 
under  several  subheads,  some  distinct  and  some  overlapping. 

Under  sanitation  may  be  considered  drainage,  sunlight,  fresh 
air,  and  ready  and  complete  disposal  of  animal  waste. 

Under  convenience  may  be  considered  distance  and  ease  of 
access  from  home  to  buildings  and  from  farm  buildings  to  the 
fields  and  the  highways,  economy  of  time  and  labor  in  feeding 
and  watering  stock,  and  in  handling  crops  and  animal  products. 

Esthetic  reasons  suggest  that  the  dwelling-house  should  front 
toward  as  extended  and  pleasing  a  view  as  may  be  obtained, 
with  local  ornamentation  in  the  shape  of  a  lawn  with  trees  and 
shrubbery  and  flowers.  In  very  many  cases  convenience  dictates 
that  it  should  front  upon  the  public  road  and  at  no  great  distance 
from  it. 

Sometimes,  and  especially  on  large  farms,  it  is  moi^e  conven- 
ient to  place  the  farm  buildings  in  the  center  of  the  farm  to  avoid 
long  distances  from  them  to  the  outlying  fields  and  consequent 
waste  of  time  in  going  to  and  fro.  As  the  farm  dwelling-house 
should  never  be  very  far  from  the  other  buildings,  in  the  latter 
case  the  dwelling  must  follow  the  other  buildings.  In  any  event, 
it  is  desirable  that  the  site  of  the  dwelling  be  on  higher  ground 
than  the  other  buildings  and  capable  of  being  made  attractive. 

A  pleasing  situation  and  attractive  surroundings  for  the  farm 
home  not  only  gives  constant  pleasure  to  those  who  occupy  it, 
but  also  adds  appreciably  to  the  market  value  of  the  property. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  drear,  desolate  ^'unhomy"  appearance 
of  some  farm  dwellings  acts  as  a  repellant  on  the  would-be  pur- 
chaser, while,  at  the  same  time,  it  kindles  and  daily  stimulates  a 
desire  in  the  young  people,  especially,  to  leave  the  farm. 

It  is  by  no  means  necessary  that  the  farm  home  be  surrounded 
with  large  grounds  and  elaborate  ornamental  plantings.  On  the 
contrary,  such  surroundings  are  entirely  out  of  place,  for,  gener- 

*  ^larvland  Agricultural  College. 

403 


404  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

ally  speaking,  the  presence  of  farm  work  would  cause  them  to  be 
neglected.  A  small  3^ard  bordered  with  flowering  shrubs,  cov- 
ered with  a  smooth  verdant  sward  and  containing  a  few  shade 
trees  with  one  or  tv^o  evergreens  for  protection  against  cold 
winds  and  to  give  a  touch  of  verdure  in  winter,  is  appropriate, 
attractive  and  easily  kept  in  order. 

As  every  farmhouse  should  have  a  bathroom,  so  in  its  location 
consideration  should  alwaj^s  be  had  for  the  convenient  and  safe 
disposal  of  sewage. 

When  farmers  make  their  homes  so  comfortable  and  attractive 
that  they  will  wish  to  live  their  own  lives  in  them,  instead  of 
moving  to  the  country  town  as  soon  as  they  can  afford  it,  the 
problem  of  how  to  keep  the  boys  and  girls  on  the  farm  will  be 
well  advanced  towards  solution. 

The  farm  buildings  should  preferably  be  to  the  rear  of  the 
dwelling,  though  sometimes  convenience  requires  that  they  be 
placed  to  the  side. 

The  ideal  location  for  the  farm  buildings  would  be  to  have 
them  grouped  about  a  yard  open  to  the  south,  on  well-drained, 
level,  or  slightly  sloping  ground;  protected  on  the  north  and 
west,  except  in  very  warm  climates,  by  higher  ground,  woods,  or 
even  a  row  of  evergreen  trees. 

If  possible  the  farm  buildings  should  be  located  north  or  west 
of  the  dwelling  also. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  keep  a  barnyard  so  clean  that  warm,  moist 
winds  blowdng  from  it  toward  the  residence  will  not  carry  with 
them  unpleasant  odors,  unless  the  barnyard  is  at  an  inconvenient 
distance  from  the  dwelling. 

Good  drainage  of  the  ground  under  and  adjacent  to  all  farm 
buildings  is  a  prime  necessity,  under  no  circumstance  to  be  over- 
looked. If  the  location  best  suited  from  other  reasons  is  not 
naturally  dry,  it  must  be  made  so  by  artificial  means. 

In  the  type  of  barn  known  as  the  bank  barn,  common  through- 
out rolling  or  hilly  sections,  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the 
basement,  being  more  or  less  in  an  excavation  at  the  foot  of  a 
hill,  is  kept  damp  by  seepage  moisture  which  penetrates  the  walls 
and  floors  even  though  they  are  constructed  of  hydraulic  cement. 
It  is  best  to  have  no  earth  in  contact  with  the  basement  walls, 
but,  if  that  is  thought  desirable  for  the  sake  of  warmth,  then  if 
the  hillside  tends  to  be  at  all  spring}^,  a  tile  drain  with  protected 
outlets  should  be  laid  at  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  wall,  and 
a  foot  space  between  the  wall  and  the  earth  bank  should  be  filled 
in  with  fine  gravel  or  coal  ashes.    In  addition,  all  water  from  the 


AKRANGEMENT  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS  405 

roofs  should  be  collected  in  spouting  and  carried  off  from  the 
building  and  from  the  barnyard.  The  barnyard  itself  should  be 
level  and  slightly  hollowed  out  in  order  to  jDrevent  the  waste  of 
the  soluble  part  of  the  manure.  In  seme  cases  with  barns  of  this 
type,  one  sees  the  barnyard  sloping  down  to  and  including  a 
running  stream,  which  furnishes  an  easy  means  of  watering  the 
stock,  but  also  a  disastrous  source  of  loss  of  fertility.  Especially 
should  care  be  taken  that  no  water  from  higher  ground  runs  into 
or  over  the  barnyard.  Sunlight  is  the  greatest  of  all  natural 
disinfectants.  Not  only  should  the  buildings  be  so  arranged  as 
to  receive  the  greatest  quantity  of  direct  sunlight,  but  the  yard 
adjoining  should  be  flooded  daily  with  sunshine.  The  noonday 
sun  is  the  most  beneficial,  but,  where  location  will  not  permit 
that,  provision  should  be  made  to  admit  into  all  stock  buildings 
the  full  morning  sunshine.  Domestic  animals  are  early  risers 
and  they  greatly  appreciate  the  rays  of  the  morning  sun,  espe- 
cially in  wintry  weather. 

Even  in  the  hilly  or  rolling  sections,  many  men  are  coming 
more  and  more  to  appreciate  the  disadvantages  of  the  bank  barn 
for  cows,  and  are  building  light,  airy,  and  well-ventilated  cow 
barns  with  provisions  for  tw^o  rows  of  cows  and  ample  windows 
to  admit  sunlight  and  air. 

If  such  a  barn  be  placed  with  its  long  axis  running  east  and 
west,  very  little  sunlight  will  reach  the  stalls  of  the  north  row. 
If  the  long  axis  runs  from  north  to  south,  the  sunlight  mil 
stream  in  through  the  east  windows  in  the  morning,  while  the 
west  row  of  stalls  will  get  the  benefit  of  the  afternoon  sun. 

In  hog  houses  with  a  double  row  of  pens,  the  accepted  plan  is 
to  have  the  long  axis  run  east  and  west  with  a  "broken  roof* 
to  the  south  Avith  two  rows  of  windows,  the  upper  row  in  the 
''break"  and  the  lower  in  the  south  wall.  These  windows  are  so 
placed  that  the  noon  sun  of  mnter  will  reach  the  back  and  the 
front  pens  through  the  upper  and  lower  windows,  respectively. 

An  abundance  of  pure  water,  easy  of  access,  is  indispensable 
for  the  well-being  of  the  farmer's  family  and  of  his  livestock. 
In  hilly  countries  this  may  often  be  piped  to  the  house  and  barn 
by  gravity  from  a  spring  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  or  be  forced  up  by 
a  hydraulic  ram  from  one  at  lower  altitude,  and  such  an  eco- 
nomical source  of  supplying  this  essential  may  well  influence 
one  in  the  location  of  his  buildings. 

In  other  situations,  ■\\and  or  gasoline  furnish  convenient  lifting 
power.  AMiere  the  spring  is  not  too  far  from  the  other  buildings, 
a  stone  or  cement  spring  house  furnishes  cheap  and  effective 


406  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 

cold  storage  for  milk,  cream,  butter  and  other  products,  but  often 
the  distance  and  the  labor  of  going  up  and  down  hill  make  this 
arrangement  onerous  in  the  extreme  and  in  the  end  costly.  The 
milk  house  should  be  close  to  the  barn  and  convenient  to  the 
dwelling,  even  if  artificial  cooling  has  to  be  resorted  to.  Some- 
times when  water  is  brought  some  distance  in  pipes,  it  becomes 
warm  in  summer  before  it  reaches  the  milk  house.  If  the  water 
comes  by  natural  flow,  it  may  be  chilled  again  before  it  reaches 
the  house  by  letting  it  run  through  a  coil  in  the  bottom  of  a  well. 

Some  writers  insist  that  a  dairy  barn  should  be  a  one-story 
building.  There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason,  however,  why  it 
should  not  be  built  with  a  hay  loft  above,  provided  the  loft  be 
floored  with  matched  stuff  laid  tight  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
dust.  For  the  further  avoidance  of  dust,  a  barn  of  this  sort 
should  be  so  constructed  that  the  hay  will  be  brought  down 
outside  of  the  stable  proper,  or  at  least  through  a  closed-in 
chute.  At  one  end  of  the  barn,  provision  should  be  made  for  a 
driveway  close  to  the  building  and  for  convenient  use  of  a  hay 
fork. 

No  modern  dairjonan  or  stockman  can  be  considered  well 
prepared  for  the  business  unless  his  equipment  includes  one  or 
more  silos.  These  should  preferably  open  outside  the  barn  and 
into  a  closed  and  covered  passage  connecting  the  silo  with  the 
feed  room.  Ample  space  should  be  left  about  the  silos  for  plac- 
ing the  cutter  and  power  and  for  handling  the  wagons  that  bring 
in  the  corn  or  other  material. 

Similar  provision  should  be  made  for  the  manure  spreaders 
which  receive  and  carry  off  the  manure. 

H^^gienic  laws  require  that  cows  and  horses  be  kept  entirely 
apart.  On  approved  dairy  farms,  the  horses  are  kept  in  a  sepa- 
rate building.  Horse  barns  also  should  be  so  placed  as  to  admit 
of  good  lighting  and  ventilation. 

Theoretically,  manure  should  be  hauled  from  the  barn  and 
spread  every  day.  In  practice  this  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impos- 
sible. If  the  horse  and  the  cow  barns  are  so  placed  that  when  it 
is  not  possible  to  haul  it  daily,  the  manure  from  both  classes  of 
animals  can  be  mixed.  This  will  save  much  loss  of  ammonia 
from  rapid  fermentation  or  heating  of  the  horse  manure. 

It  is  a  matter  of  convenience  and  economy  of  time  to  have  the 
building  for  the  storage  of  farm  implements,  usually  a  long,  deep 
shed,  close  to  the  horse  barn  and  faced  so  as  to  protect  the  imple- 
ments from  driving  rains  and  snows  and  also  protect  the  men 
who  may  be  busy  with  them  in  repairing,  oiling,  painting,  etc. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  FARM  BUILDINGS  407 

Except  in  the  extreme  north,  such  open  sheds  faced  to  the 
south  are  better  than  closed  barns  for  stock,  cattle  and  sheep. 
If  the  windows  are  very  cold  and  windy,  the  lower  part  of  the 
front  may  be  closed  in.  The  important  thing  about  such  shelters 
is  that  they  be  so  located  that  they  will  at  all  times  be  thor- 
oughly dry. 

A  carpenter  shop  with  a  well-lighted  bench  and  a  blacksmith 
shop  are  extremely  useful  accessories  on  every  farm  of  any  size. 
These  may  be  in  the  same  building,  which  may  be  placed  in  any 
convenient  situation  somewhat  in  the  background. 

The  farm  flock  is  and  will  continue  to  be  the  principal  source 
of  poultry  products.  Since  the  farmer's  wife  usually  looks  after 
the  flock  and  handles  the  proceeds,  the  farmer  often  gives  but 
little  thought  to  the  poultry,  and  it  suffers  accordingly.  No  class 
of  domestic  livestock,  however,  responds  more  promptly  and 
profitably  to  good  attention  than  the  farm  hen,  and  she  is  worthy 
of  the  best  that  can  be  given  her.  Since  the  woman  of  the  house 
has  most  to  do  with  them,  the  poultry  buildings  must  be  where 
she  can  reach  them  easily  and  often.  Neglected  hens,  sick  hens, 
cold  hens  and  hens  with  wet  feet  do  not  lay,  and  the  health  and 
comfort  of  the  flock  are  often  adversely  affected  by  a  bad  loca- 
tion of  their  quarters.  A  southern  or  eastern  exposure,  a  dry, 
and,  if  possible,  sheltered  situation  convenient  to  shade  in  sum- 
mer and,  when  the  flock  has  to  be  kept  up,  to  small  lots  for  a 
rotation  of  poultry  pasture  crops,  are  indispensable  where  the 
flock  is  considered  from  a  profit-making  basis. 

Each  year  sees  more  and  more  farmhouses  equipped  with 
running  w^ater  and  inside  toilet  facilities.  But  a  very  large  pro- 
portion are  yet  and  will  continue  to  be  dependent  upon  outside 
closets.  Under  sanitary  management,  it  was  necessary  that 
these  closets  be  placed  at  a  distance  from  other  buildings.  But 
such  distances  are  by  no  means  necessary,  and  the  situation  of 
these  buildings  may  be  made  much  more  convenient  to  those  who 
have  to  use  them  if  sanitary  precautions  are  taken  in  the  way  of 
a  proper  receptacle  for  the  waste,  wire  screens  and  an  abundant 
use  of  dry  earth  kept  ready  to  hand  in  the  building,  which  must 
therefore  be  made  large  enough  to  contain  a  dry  earth  box  capa- 
ble of  holding  enough  for  a  considerable  period  of  time. 
Screened  by  a  vine-covered  trellis  or  low-growing  evergreens, 
the  proximity  of  such  a  building  is  not  unsanitary  and  in  no  way 
objectionable. 

Especially   on   farms   where    there   is   much    outside   labor 


408  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

employed,  there  is  need  for  toilet  accommodations  near  the  farm 
buildings  and  they  should  by  no  means  be  neglected. 

The  most  modern  of  farm  buildings  is  the  garage.  As  that  is 
unobjectionable  in  itself  and  easily  capable  of  architectural 
adornment,  it  may  be  placed  in  any  convenient  situation  outside 
of  the  danger  limit.  In  its  location,  the  chief  requirements  are 
as  warm  a  place  as  possible,  abundance  of  light  and  easy  access 
from  a  firm  roadway. 

The  location  and  grouping  of  the  buildings  are  a  separate 
problem  on  every  farm,  a  problem  to  be  solved  only  after  careful 
consideration  of  the  local  conditions.  An  effort  has  been  made 
here  to  call  attention  to  some  factors  which  may  help  in  arriving 
at  a  proper  solution. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 


TREES,  SHRUBS  AXD  PLANTS  FOR  FAR.M  AND  IIO^NIE  PLANTING* 


The  planting  plan. —  In  the  development  of  tlie  home  grounds 
there  is  need  of  a  preconceived  plan.  This  plan  should  be  con- 
ceived in  a  general  way,  when  the  building  sites  are  being 
selected,  but  the  details  may  best  be  worked  out  after  the  build- 
ings have  been  constructed  and  the  drives  and  walks  have  been 
laid  out.  AVhile  the  need  for  a  plan  is  real,  and  its  existence 
essential,  there  is  no 
necessity  of  carrying 
it  out  all  at  once.  The 
execution  of  the  plan 
may  be  gradual;  the 
most  important  parts 
of  it  may  be  devel- 
oped first,  and  the  re- 
maining parts  as  cir- 
cumstances permit. 
In  fact,  this  gradual 
development  is  often 
desirable  as  the  ex- 
perience gained  the  Fig.  20s. — a  farmstead  with  outlooks  good,  bad,  and 
first  year  or  so  often  Sr'*"^'"'"''''  '^  ^'"'^'  "^  Agriculture, 

suggests       desirable 

changes  for  future  work.  Under  such  conditions,  a  plan  drawn 
to  a  definite  scale,  furnishing  a  definite  record  for  future  refer- 
ence, is  very  essential  as  it  insures  the  progressive  development 
of  the  scheme  that  otherwise  miglit  be  forgotten. 

Planting". —  Very  ordinary  looking  buildings  can  be  made 
attractive  and  homelike  if  the  planting  is  properly  done.  It  may 
be  said  that  the  less  prominent  the  architectural  features  of  a 
place,  the  greater  the  relative  importance  of  the  plantings. 
Hence  it  is  very  important  that  considerable  attention  be  given 
to  the  planting  of  the  ordinary  farm  house. 

Functions  of  planting. —  Before  any  successful  attempt  may 
be  made  in  this  line,  one  must  first  inquire  as  to  the  functions  or 


By  permission  of  C.  P.  Halligan,  B.S.,  Mich.  Exp.  Sta. 

409 


410  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  209. — Diagram  showing  how  the  farmstead  shown 
in  Fig.  208  may  be  improved  by  plantings  to  ac- 
centuate the  good  outlooks  and  to  hide  the  bad 
and  indifferent  ones. — Courtesy  of  College  of  Ag- 
riculture, Cornell. 


purposes  of  the  plantings  to  be  made.  In  planting  farm  grounds, 
let  it  be  realized  that  it  is  the  endeavor  to  create  a  picture.  That 
in  this  picture  there  are  given  as  its  elements  a  farm  house  and 

..v.^-^-'   .  m. Vmm^ m^ — r    other  buHdings  — 

IWlJt^g^^^S^  ^#         roads,  walks,  lawns 

and  other  more  or 
less  separated  ele- 
ment s .  To  unite 
these  several  discon- 
nected parts  into  the 
production  of  one 
harmonious  compo- 
sition is  the  leading 
function  of  the  plant- 
ings. To  arrange  the 
plantings  about  the 
house  that  the  build- 
ing may  seem  a  natu- 
ral outgrowth  of  the 
spot;  to  so  arrange 
the  plantings  on  the  grounds  that  each  and  every  planting  may 
seem  dependent  upon  the  presence  of  every  other  planting  or 
other  element  in  the  design,  is  the  purpose  of  the  planting. 
When  it  can  be  re- 
alized that  these 
plantings  are  made 
not  primarily  for  the 
sake  of  their  own  in- 
dividual beauty,  but 
more  because  of  their 
relationship  to  the 
design  as  a  whole,  to 
the  picture  about  to 
be  created,  the  first 
principle  to  guide 
one  in  planting  has 
been  mastered. 

The  planting  of 
each  and  every 
grounds  is  a  new  problem,  differing  in  certain  respects  from 
every  other  one.  There  are  no  definite  rules  then  that  can 
be  given  to  guide  one  in  the  work;  no  ideal  plan  which  may 
be  drawn  to  serve  all  places;  but  there  are  a  few  general 


Fig.  210. —  Diagram  of  farmstead  with  an  orchard 
which  acts  as  a  screen  from  the  road. — Courtesy 
of  College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell. 


TEEES,  SHKUBS  AND  PLANTS 


411 


principles  which  may  be  suggested  as  a  guide  when  solving 
many  of  these  problems.  Before  any  planting  design  is  made, 
the  grounds  should  be  studied  in  reference  to  the  general 
arrangement  that  is  most  serviceable.  The  style  of  architec- 
ture of  the  house,  the  position  and  character  of  any  large  trees 
already  on  the  grounds,  the  slope  and  general  character  of 
the  land,  and  any  other  natural  condition  should  be  studied  to 
''see  what  kinds  of  beauty,  what  general  character  of  pleasing 
appearance  these  conditions  most  readily  suggest."  Each  and 
every  home  grounds 
is  more  or  less  sug- 
gestive of  a  certain 
type  of  beauty  which 
may  be  brought  forth 
and  emphasized  with 
the  least  difficulty. 

After  perceiving 
this  type  of  beauty, 
one  must  then  pro- 
ceed to  make  the 
necessary  details  of 
arrangement,  empha- 
size and  enhance  the 
character  thus  select- 
ed. One  will  first  find 
certain  elements  which  detract  from  the  beauty  of  the  grounds, 
which  are  defects  in  the  picture,  and  should  be  screened  by  the 
use  of  plantings.  Views  within  the  grounds  such  as  the  henhouse, 
barnyard,  a  boundary  fence  or  service  drive  and  other  unsightly 
spots;  views  beyond  the  grounds  as  of  a  neighbor's  shed,  the 
back  of  a  neighbor's  barn  and  other  views  hardly  pleasing  and 
acceptable  to  the  sight, —  all  these  should  be  entirely  hidden 
from  view  by  the  use  of  plantings,  or  at  least  partially  broken 
up  to  minimize  their  unsightliness. 

There  are  other  elements  in  the  design  which  should  be  just 
as  carefully  preserved  and  enhanced  by  plantings.  The  most 
pleasing  lines  and  portions  of  the  house,  for  example,  may  be 
emphasized  and  carefully  preserved  to  the  view.  A  wide  sweep 
of  open  lawn,  with  a  border  and  background  of  trees  and  shrub- 
bery, is  always  a  pleasing  and  acceptable  sight.  Vistas  without 
the  grounds  as  of  a  distant  woods,  a  winding  river  or  a  neigh- 
boring farm  house,  and  even  the  travel  upon  a  public  road,  are 
often  welcome  sights  which  add  to  the  pleasure  and.  value  of  the 


Fig.  211. — Suggested  development  of  plan  shown  in 
Fig.  210,  with  good  views  accentuated  and  bad 
views  hidden. — Courtesjf  of  College  of  Agricul- 
ture, Cornell. 


412  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

grounds.  It  is  especially  important  that  these  vistas  be  care- 
fully preserved  from  the  living  rooms  of  the  house,  not  always 
from  the  parlor  but  from  those  rooms  where  the  family  spend 
the  major  portion  of  their  time.  The  plantings  then  serve  a  very 
important  function  by  concealing  the  defects  in  these  places  and 
by  enhancing  those  parts  that  are  most  pleasing.  Thus  it  may 
be  seen  how  beautiful  and  attractive  some  of  the  ordinary  look- 
ing farms  of  to-day  may  become  by  the  proper  use  of  plantings. 
How  much  more  important  this  landscape  use  of  plantings  be- 
comes on  a  conmion  ordinary  looking  farm  where  there  are  gen- 
erally so  many  unpleasant  sights  which  detract  from  the  looks 
and  very  often  from  the  value  of  the  farm. 

Plantings,  when  improperly  used,  may  detract  from  the  value 
and  looks  of  the  farm  as  well.  The  effect  of  a  well-designed  farm 
house  is  very  frequently  ruined  by  poor  plantings.  Trees  planted 
too  thickly  or  too  closely  in  front  of  the  house ;  a  lack  of  harmony 
in  the  design  of  the  grounds  to  that  of  the  house ;  plantings  so 
placed  as  to  hide  the  house  from  its  most  pleasing  point  of 
view  —  these  are  a  few  of  the  many  causes  which  often  spoil  the 
effect  of  a  well  designed  house  by  improper  plantings.  Let  it  be 
remembered  then  that  plantings  are  to  enhance  rather  than  to 
detract  from  the  expression  already  given  by  the  design  of  the 
house  and  to  harmonize  it  with  its  site. 

There  are  three  general  rules  of  guidance  in  arranging  the 
plantings : 

1.  Avoid  straight  lines  in  planting.  The  general  effect  of  all 
lines  in  planting  should  be  graceful  and  naturalistic  rather  than 
stiff,  formal  or  artificial.  Plantings  should  seem  to  be  a  natural 
outgrowth  of  the  spot  rather  than  a  crude  piece  of  man 's  handi- 
work. 

2.  Arrange  the  plants  in  groups  and  masses,  selecting  few 
kinds  and  many  of  each  rather  than  many  kinds  and  few  of  each. 

Avoid  planting  meaningless,  isolated  specimens  over  the  lawn. 
Naturalistic  masses  and  groups  of  plants  are  necessary  to  give 
structural  character  to  the  design  and  each  group  or  mass  should 
consist  of  many  specimens  of  but  a  few  kinds  rather  than  one  or 
two  specimens  of  several  kinds.  The  kinds  of  shrubs  selected 
should  be  repeated  in  the  various  groups  and  masses  not  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  combinations  but  sufficiently  so  that  the  effect 
of  one  planting  may  be  harmonious  with  the  others.  In  this  man- 
ner unity  of  effect  may  be  obtained. 

3.  Plantings  should  be  massed  about  the  base  of  the  buildings, 
grouped  about  the  junctions  or  curves  in  the  walls,  massed  about 


TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS 
Shade  Trees, 


413 


WELL  DEVELOPED  HEAD. 
GOOD  LEADER,   MAIN 
BRANCHES  FORMING 
WIDE,  NOT  CLOSE, 
ANCLES   WITH  STEM. 


STAKE  ^7  INCHES  BY 
10  FEET  DRIVEN  2  FEET 
IN  GROUND. 


TREE  PRUNED    AS 
ORDINARILY  REQUIRED. 
IF  ROOTS   ARE  FULL 
CROWN  NEED  BE  LESS 
CURTAILED. 


BASE  OF  PERMANENT 
CROWN  10  FEET 
ABOVE    PAVEMENT. 


RUBBER  COVERED  WIRE. 
on  CANVAS, BINDER. 


4=^^ 


BED  DUG  OUT  18  INCHES 
DEEP.  THEN  FILLED  TO 
LOWER  ROOT  LEVEL  WITH 
MIXTURE  OF  ^COOD  SOIL 
ANO^ROTrrp  MANURE. 


BASE  OF  TEMPORARY 
CROWN    7  FEET 
ABOVE   PAVEMENT.    , 


MULCH    OF 
PULVERIZED  EARTH 


PLENTY  OF  FIBROUS 
ROOTS.  BRO^EN 
ROOTS  CUTOFF  SMOOTH 


RICH    EARTH  PACKED 
riRMLY  AIL  ABOUT  ROOTS 


COURTESY 
N.J. FOREST  COMP1ISSI0M 


Fig.  212. —  How  to  plant  a  tree. 


414  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

the  boundaries  and  corners  of  the  property,  but  not  usually  along 
the  front  boundary  of  the  property. 

AMien  arranged  in  this  way,  an  open  lawn  bounded  with  nat- 
uralistic plantings  of  shrubbery  and  trees  will  be  the  general 
effect. 

In  arranging  these  plantings,  they  may  perform  other  desira- 
ble functions  also.  They  may  be  arranged  to  shelter  the  house 
from  the  winter  storms  and  the  summer  heat,  or  to  frame  desir- 
able vistas,  and  thus  accentuate  their  attractiveness.  Masses  of 
shrubs  may  be  used  to  take  the  place  of  an  undesirable  fence  or 
hedge.  They  may  be  planted  to  prevent  people  from  wearing 
paths  across  the  lawns  and  to  unify  the  walks,  buildings  and 
other  elements  of  the  grounds  into  one  harmonious  design. 

Hoiv  to  plant. —  The  planting  should  be  done  early  enough  in 
the  spring  so  that  the  shrubs  will  be  well  established  before  the 
heat  and  drought  of  summer  overtakes  them.  In  preparing  the 
beds,  they  should  be  dug  to  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  and  well 
manured.  The  distance  of  setting  them  depends  largely  upon 
the  size  of  their  growth.  Japanese  barberries  should  be  planted 
two  feet  apart,  spireas  three  and  one-half  feet  and  lilacs  about 
four  to  five  feet.  In  three  years,  when  set  at  these  distances,  the 
branches  should  be  so  intermingled  that  their  individuality  in 
the  beds  is  lost,  and  a  unified  mass  effect  produced.  In  trans- 
planting, keep  the  roots  moist  and  prevent  them  from  being  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  and  wind  any  longer  than  necessary.  Set  the 
plants  slightly  deeper  than  they  stood  in  the  nursery,  and  pack 
the  best  fine  soil  firmly  about  the  outspread  roots.  If  the  soil  is 
dry,  water  after  planting.  It  will  help  to  compact  the  soil  about 
the  roots  and  keep  them  moist.  The  tops  may  then  be  pruned 
back  to  balance  the  loss  of  roots,  leaving  a  few  large  buds  on 
each  of  the  strongest  shoots. 

TREES   FOR   SPECIAL   PURPOSES 
Street  Planting 

Acer  saccharum  Ulmus  americana 

Sugar  Maple  American  Elm 

Acer  platanoides  Quercus  palustris 

Norway  Maple  Pin  Oak 

Quercus  rubra  Tilia  vulgaris 

Red  Oak  Linden 


TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS 


415 


Specimen 
Acer  platanoides  Scliwedleri 

Purple  Norway  Maple 
Magnolia  soulangeana 

Soulange's  Magnolia 
Crata?gus  cocciiiea 

Scarlet  Thorn 
Cladrastis  lutea 

Yelloiv-Wood 
Cornus  florida 

Flowering  Dogivood 
Quercus  (/w  Variety) 

Oak 
Populiis  nigra  italica 

Loynhardy  Poplar 
Sorlms  amoricana 

Mountain  Ash 


Planting 

Pyrus  {hi  Variety) 

Flowering  Crabapple 
Cercis  canadensis 

Redhiid  or  Judas  Tree 
Betula  {In  Variety) 

Birch 
Prunus  cerasifera  Pissardii 

Purple-leaved  Plum 
Morus  alba  pendula 

Tea's  Weeping  Mulberry 
Thuja  {In  Variety) 

White  Cedar 
Picea  {In  Variety) 

Spruce 
Fagus  {In  Variety) 

Beech 


Exposed  Lake  Front 

Caragana  arborescens  Betula  populifolia 

Siberian  Pea  Tree 
Betula  pendula 

European  White  Birch 
Ela^agnus  angustifolia 


Russian  Olive 
Pyrus  baccata 

Flowering  Crab 
Robinia  pseudacacia 

Black  Locust 
Pinus  nitra  austriaca 

Austrian  Pine 
Pinus  sylvestris 

Scotch  Pine 
Picea  canadensis 

White  Spruce 
Picea  excelsa 

Norway  Spruce 

Pinus  strobus 

White  Pine 
Picea  excelsa 

Norn- ay  Spruce 
Pinus  resinosa 

Red  or  Norway  Pine 


American  White  Birch 
Crataegus  oxyacantha 

May  Thorn 
Crata?gus  oxyacantha  coccinea 

Scarlet  Thorn 
Populus  Eugenei 

Carolina  Poplar 
Junipersus  communis  hiberniea 

Irish  Juniper 
Pinus  montana  Mughus 

Dwarf  Pine 
Sorbus  americana 

Mountain  Ash 
Quercus  macrocarpa 

Mossy  Cup  Oak 

Windbreaks 

Pinus  sylvestris 

Scotch  Pine 
Thuja  occidentalis 

White  Cedar  or  Arbor-Vitae 


416     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


SHRUBS    FOR   SPECIAL   PURPOSES 


Berberis  Thmibergii* 
Thunherg's  Barberry 

Rosa  rugosa 
Japanese  Rose 

Spiraea  Vanhouttei 

Van  Houtt's  Spirea  or 
Bridal  Wreath 


Hedges 

Deutzia  Lemoinei 

Lemoin's  deutzia 
Ligustrum  amurense 

Amur  Privet 
Lonicera  tartarica 

Tartarian  Honeysuckle 
Thuja  occidentalis 

Arhor-Vitae  or  White  Cedar 


Deutzia  gracilis 

Slender  Deutzia 
Berberis  Thunbergii 

Thunherg's  Barberry 
Symplioricarpos  orbiculatus 

Coral  Berry  or  hidian  Cur- 
rant 
Kerria  Japonica 

Globe  Floiver  or  Corchorus 


Border  Planting 
a.    Low  Growing 

Spiraea  Bumalda  var.  Anthony 
Waterer 
Anthony  Water er's  Spirea 
Spiraea  Thunbergii 

Thunherg's  Spirea 
Symphoricarpos  albus 
Snoiv  Berry 


1 


b.    Medium  Growing 


Ribes  ordoratum 

Yelloiv  Floivering  Currant 
Spiraea  Vanhouttei 

Van  Houtt's  Spirea  or 
Bridal  Wreath 
Spiraea  prunifolia 

Plum-leaved  Spirea 


Rosa  rugosa 
Japa7iese  Rose 

Rhodotypos  kerrioides 
White  Kerria 

Deutzia  Lemoinei 
Lemoin's  Deutzia 


Diervilla  florida 

Rose-colored  Weigela 
Lonicera  Morrowii 

Bush  Honeysuchle 
Forsvthia  intermedia 

Golden  Bell 
Viburnum  {In  Variety) 


Tall  Growing 

Philadelphus  coronarius 

MocJc  Orange  or  Syringa 
Lonicera  tartarica 

Tartarian  Honey sucMe 
Syringa  [In  Variety) 

Lilac 
Euon^mius  americana 

Straivherry  Bush 


*  The  plant  names  in  this  bulletin  are  those  adopted  by  the  American  Joint  Com- 
mittee on  Horticultural  Nomenclature. 


TEEES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS 


417 


Specimen  Use 


Corinus  americanus 

Smoke  Tree 
Euopymus  alata 

Winged  Burning  Bush 
Chionanthus  virginica 

White  Fringe 
Exochorda  racemosa 

Pearl  Bush 
Prunus  cerasifera  Pissardii 

Purple-leaved  Plimi 


Prunus  coniinunis 

Floivering  Almond 
Caragaiia  arboresceiis 

Siberian  Pea  Tree 
Tamarix  [In  Variety) 

Tamarisk 
Cercis  canadensis 

Red-hud 
Chaenomeles  japonica 

Japan  Quince 


Rosa  setigera 

Michigan  Prairie  Rose 
Viburnum  opulus 

High-Bush  Cranberry 
Tamarix 

{In  Variety) 
Rhus  {In  Variety) 

Sumac 


Exposed  Lake  Front 

Rhamnus  cathartica 

Buckthorn 
Elseagnus  argentea 

Silver  Thorn 
Rosa  rugosa 

Japanese  Rose 
Syringa  vulgaris 

Lilac 


Philadelphus  coronarius 
Mock  Orange 

Shady  Situations 


Sjanphoricarpos  albus 

Snoiu  Berry 
S^miphoriearpos  orbiculatus 

Coral  Berry 
Calycanthus  floridus 

Siveet-scented  Shrub 
Cornus  {In  Variety) 

Dogwood 

Sandy  Soils 


Diervilla  hybrida  var.  Eva 
Rathke 

Weigela  Eva  Rathke 
Viburnmn  {In  Variety) 
Ligustrum  amurense 

Amur  Privet 


Rhus  canadensis 

Fragrant  Sumac 
Caragana  arborescens 

Siberian  Pea  Tree 
Forsythia  intermedia 

Golden  Bell 
Tamarix  {In  Variety) 

Tamarisk 


Lonicera  tartarica 

Tartarian  Bush  Honeysuckle 
Rosa  rugosa 

Japanese  Rose 
Rosa  setigera 

Michigan  Prairie  Rose 
Berberis  Thunbergii 

Thunberg's  Barberry 


418  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMEES 

Rhus  glabra  Rhus  {In  Variety) 

Simiac  Sumac 

Cotinus  coggygria  Sorbaria  sorbifolia 

Purple  Fringe  Ash-leaved  Spirea 

Spiraea  Vanhouttei  Spiraea  tomentosa 

Van  Houtt's  Spirea  Hardhack 
Rosa  setigera 

Michigan  Prairie  Rose 

ROSES 

Hybrid  Perpetuals 

For  cut  flowers 
(Half  hardy,  requiring  some  protection  over  wdnter) 

Frau  Karl  Druschki  {ivhite) 

Mrs.  John  Laing  {pink) 

General  Jacqueminot  {hrilUant  crimson) 

Ulrich  Brunner  {cherry  red) 

Paul  Neyron  {deep  rose) 

Mrs.  R.  G.  Sharman  Crawford  {deep  rose-pink) 

John  Hopper  {bright  rose) 

Marshall  P.  Wilder  {cherry  carmine) 

Prince  Camille  de  Rohan  {deep  crimson) 

Hardy  Climbing 

Baltimore  Belle  {white  tinted  pink) 

Crimson  Rambler  {bright  crimson) 

Dorothy  Perkins  {pink) 

Lady  Gay  {rose  pink) 

White  Dorothy  Perkins  {ivhite) 

For  Landscape  Effect 

Rosa  rugosa  {Japan  rose) 
Rosa  setigera  {Michigan  Prairie  rose) 
Rosa  rubiginosa  {Sweet  briar) 
Rosa  rubrifolia  {Red-leaved  rose) 

Hardy  Bush 

Austrian  Yellow  Blanche  Moreau  {ivhite) 

Persian  Yellow  Princess  Adelaide  {pale  rose' 

Common  Moss  Gracilis  {deep  pink) 


TREES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS 


419 


VINES    FOR    SPECIAL   PURPOSES 

Flowering  Vines 

Roses,  Wichuraiana  Hybrids 


Clematis  Jackinanii 

Purple  clematis 
Clematis  paniculata 

White  Floivering  Clematis 
Campsis  radicans 

Trumpet  Vine 


Crimson  Rambler 
Dorothy  Perkins. 
Wisteria  sinensis 

Chinese  Wisteria 
Lonicera  japonica  Halliana 
Hall's  Japan  Honeysuckle 


Vines  for  Covering  Brick,  Stone  and  Masonry 

Parthenocissus  trieuspidata        Parthenocissus  quinquefolia 

Engelmannii 


Veitchii 
Boston  Ivy 
Euonjanus  radicans 
Climb  ing  Euonymus 


Engelmann  's  Ampelopsis 


Vigorous  Climbing  Vines  with  Heavy  Foliage 


Celastrus  scandens 

Bittersweet 
Campsis  radicans 

Trumpet  Vine 
Parthenocissus  quinquefolia 

Virginia  Creeper 


Lonicera  {In  Variety) 

Honeysuckle 
Wisteria  sinensis 

Chinese  Wisteria 
Aristolochia  macrophylla 

Dutchman's  Pipe 


Clematis  paniculata 
White- floivering  Clematis 

PERENNIALS   FOR   SPECIAL  PURPOSE 


Standard  Types 


Iris  germanica 

German  Iris 
Phlox  paniculata 

Garden  Phlox 
Psponia 

Peony 
Delphinium 

Larkspur 
Aster 

Aster 
Rudbeckia  laciniata 

Golden  Gloiv 


for  General  Planting 

Coreopsis  lanceolata 

Lance-leaved  Tickseed 
Dianthus  barbatus 

Sweet  William 
Aquilegia 

Columbine 
Chrysanthemum 

Ch  rysanthemum 
Althaea  rosea 

Hollyhock 


420  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Little  Known  Perennials  that  Should  be  More  Largely  Used 


Achillea  Ptarmica  var.  Boule 
de  Neige 

Ball  of  Snoiu 
Monarda  did}T.Tia 

Bee  Balm 
Hosta  plantaginea 

Day  Lily 
Gypsophila  paiiiculata 

Baby's  Breath 
Papaver  orientale 

Oriental  Poppy 
Phlox  subulata 

Moss  Pink 
Hibiscus  moscheutos 

Marsh  Malloiv 


Gaillardia  aristata 

Blanket  Floiver 
Narcissus  poeticus 

Narcissus 
Anemone  japonica 

Japanese  Windflower 
Iberis  sempervirens 

Evergreen  Candytuft 
Aquilegia  formosa  hybrids 

Columbines 
Chrysanthemum  coccineum 

Feverfeiv 
Lobelia  cardinalus 

Cardinal  Floiver 
Eulalias  {In  Variety) 

Plume  Grasses 


CHOICE   VARIETIES   OF   PEONIES 


White 
Early 

F estiva  Maxima 

Madame  de  Verneville 
Mid-season 

Baroness  Schroeder 
Late 

Marie  Lemoine 

Couronne  d'Or 

Deep  Pink 
Early 

Alexandriana 
Mid-season 

Modeste  Guerin 
Late 

Livingston 

Monsieur  Boncharlat  Aine 


Pink 
Early 

Delicatissima 
Mid-season 

Therese 

Madame  Emile  Lefnoine 

Albert  Crousse 
Late 

Dorchester 

Red 

Early 

Augustin  d'Hour 
Mid-season 

Felix  Crousse 
Late 

Henry  Demay 


CHOICE  VARIETIES  OF  PHLOX 

Mrs.  Jenkins  {early  white) 
Fraulein  Von  Lassburg  {large  ivhite) 
Jeanne  d'Arc  {late  ivhite) 
Bridesmaid  {white,  carmine  center) 
Henri  Murger  {white,  carmine  center) 


TEEES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS  421 

Europa  {white,  carmine  eye) 

W.  C.  Egan  {soft  pink) 

Selma  {pinh,  red  eye) 

Pantheon  {hrilliant  rose) 

Rynstrom  {deep  salmon  pink) 

Siebold  (bright  scatdet) 

Rosenberg  {reddish  violet  tvith  red  eye) 

B.  Comte  {purple) 

CHOICE  VARIETIES  OF  GERMAN  IRIS 

Atropnrpurea  {purple) 

Fairy  {ivory  ivhite,  pale  violet  veins) 

Florontina  {ivhite,  tinged  with  blue),  early 

Gracchus  {yelloiv  and  crimson),  early 

King  of  Iris  {yelloiv  and  broivn) 

Madame  Chereau  {ivhite,  tinged  blue) 

Madame  Pacquette  {bright  rosy  claret),  early 

Maori  King  {rich  golden  yelloiv) 

Mrs.  H.  Darwin  {ivhite,  violet  veins),  early 

Pallida  Dalmatica  {lavender,  blue) 

Queen  of  May  {lilac,  piiik) 

Silver  King  {silvery  ivhite),  early 

ANNUALS  FOR  SPECIAL  PURPOSES 

Annuals  Valuable  for  Cut  Flowers 
Asters,  late  branching  Bachelor  Buttons 

Sweet  Peas  Zinnias 

Cosmos,  early  flowering  Snapdragon 

Pansies  Corn  Flower 

Nasturtiums,  dwarf  Heliotrope 

Mignonette  Stocks 

Dianthus 

Annuals  for  Garden  Effects 
For  edgings :  For  bedding  effects : 

Sweet  Alyssum  Annual  Phlox 

Lobelia  Verbena 

English  Daisy  Annual  Poppies 

Dwarf  Cockscomb  Petunia,  var.  Rosy  Morn 

Dusty  Miller  African  Daisy 

Ageratum  [Marigold 

Candytuft  Balsam 

Celosia 

Portulaca 


422     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Tall  gromng  annuals : 

Castor  Oil  Bean 
Sunflower 
Cosmos,  late 


Cyperus  vine 
Balloon  Vine 
Gourd,  Ornamental 
Climbing  Nasturtiums 
Scarlet-runner  Bean 


Annual  Vines 

"Wild  Cucumber 
Morning  Glory 
Hop  Vine 
Moon  Vine 
Cobea 


HARDY  PERENNIALS  FOR  CUT  FLOWERS* 

One  of  the  great  joys  incidental  to  the  possession  of  a  hardy 
garden  is  the  privilege  of  cutting  flowers  for  the  decoration  of 
the  home  or  as  a  friendly  gift  that  ^\dll  never  go  unappreciated. 
May  and  June  are  prodigal  months  in  the  garden,  but  an  unlim- 
ited supply  of  flowers  may  not  be  available  during  late  smumer 
and  fall  without  a  careful  selection  of  varieties.  We,  therefore, 
submit  the  foUowin 
selection : 


g  good  cut-flower  kinds  to  facilitate  your 
July-Flowering  Subjects 


Achillea 

Aconitum  auturanale 

Anchusa  italica  vars. 

Shasta  Daisies 

Delphiniums 

Digitalis 

Helenium  Hoopesii 


Achillea 

Aconitum  autumnale 

Boltonia 

Shasta  Daisies 

Coreopsis 

Delphinium 

Funkia  subgrandiflora 

Gaillardia 

Heliopsis 


ITemerocallis,  as  noted 

Gaillardias 

Heuchera 

Hollyhocks 

Lilium  tigrinum  vars. 

Lychnis  chalcedonica 


Pentstemons 

Phlox  suffruticosa  vars. 

Scabiosa 

Spiraea     (Astilbe)     Arendsii 

vars. 
Stokesia 


August-Flowering  Subjects 


Heuchera 

Hollyhocks 

Liatris  vars. 

Lobelia  cardinalis 

jNIonarda,  Cambridge  Scarlet 

Hardy  Phlox 

Physostegia 

Platycodon 

Rudbeckia 


Statice 

Stokesia 

Tritoma 

Veronica    longifolia 

silis 
Veronica  paniciilata 
Veronica  spicata 
Veronica  virginica 


September-Flowering  Subjects 


Anemone  aaponica  vars. 

Hardy  Asters,  as  noted 

Boltonia 

Delphinium 

Eupatorium 

Gaillardia 

Helenium 

Heliopsis 


Anemone  japonica  vars. 
Hardy  Chrysanthemum 


Liatris  vars. 

Lobelia  cardinali 

Hardy  Phlox 

Physostegia 

Rudbeckia 

Scabiosa 

Statice 


Stokesia 
Tritoma 
Veronica    longifolia 

silis 
Veronica  paniculata 
Veronica  spicata 
Veronica  virginica 


subses- 


October-Flowering  Subjects 


Hardy  Asters,  as  noted 
Hardy  Gaillardia 


Hardy  Phlox 
Hardy  Tritoms 


Courtesy  of  N.  A.  Pierson,  Cromwell,  Conn. 


TKEES,  SHRUBS  AND  PLANTS 


423 


Perennials  Suitable  for  Shady  Locations  in  the  Hardy  Border 


Adenophora.  Partial  shade  or 
full  sun. 

Ajuga,  all  varieties.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Anemone  sylvestris.  Partial 
shade. 

Anemone  pennsylvanicum. 

Partial  shade  or  full  sun. 

Anemone  vitifolia.  Partial 
shade. 

Aciuilegia,  all  varieties.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Convallaria  ( Lil.v-of-the- Val- 
ley).     I'artial   shade. 

Deliihinium.  Partial  shade  or 
full  sun. 

Dielytra.  Partial  shade  or 
full   sun. 

Digitalis.  Partial  shade  or 
full  sun. 

Funkia,  all  varieties.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 


Ilemerocallis.  Partial  shade 
or  full  sun. 

Ilepatica.     Partial   shade. 

Ileuchera.  Partial  shade  or 
full   sun. 

Hyi)ericum  Moserianum.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Iris  sermanica.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Iris  pumila.  Partial  shade 
or  full  sun. 

Lilies,  Hardy.  Partial  shade 
or  full  sun. 

Lobelia  cardinalis.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Myosotis.     Partial  shade. 

Pachysandra  terminal  is.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Peonies.  Light  shade  or  full 
sun. 

Phlox  divaricata.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 


I'hlox     canadensis.       Partial 

shade  or  full  sun. 
Platycodon.     Partial  shade  or 

full  sun. 
Polemonium.      Partial    shade 

or  full  sun. 
Polygonatum.     Partial  shade. 
Primula,  all  varieties.    Partial 

shade. 
Spinca      (Astilbe).       Partial 

shade  or  full  sun. 
Tradescantia.     Partial  shade 

or  full  sun. 
Veronica   longifolia.      Partial 

shade  or  full  sun. 
Veronica    virginica.      Partial 

shade  or  full  sun. 
Viola  cornuta  varieties.     Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 


Desirable  Rock-Garden  Plants 


Arenaria  montana.     Full  sun. 

Ajuga,  all  varieties.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Alyssum,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Anemone  pennsylvanicum. 

I'artial   shade. 

Anemone  Pulsatilla.  Partial 
shade. 

Anemone  sylvestris.  Partial 
shade. 

Armeria,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Aubrietia,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Asters,  dwarf  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Campanula  carpatica  varie- 
ties.    Full  sun. 

Cerastium,  all  varieties.  Full- 
sun. 

Convallaria  (Lily-of-the-Val- 
ley).      Partial   shade. 

Delphinium  chinensis  varie- 
ties. Partial  shade  or  full 
sun. 

Dianthus,  Hardy  Pinks.  Full 
sun. 

Dielytra  formosa.  Partial 
shade. 


Draba,  all  varieties.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Euphorbia.      Full   sun. 

Genum,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Gentians.     Partial  shade. 

Gypsophila  repens  varieties. 
Full  sun. 

ITelianthemum,  all  varieties. 
Full  sun. 

Hepatica  triloba.  Partial 
shade. 

Ileuchera,  all  varieties.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Iberis,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Inula  ensifolia.     Full  sun. 

Iris,  dwarf  varieties.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Linum,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Lychnis,  all  varieties  except 
Chalcedonica.     Full  sun. 

Myosotis.     Full  sun. 

Oenothera,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Pachysandra  terminalis.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Papaver  nudicaule.    Full  sun. 

Papaver  alpinum.      Full  sun. 


Pentstemon  heterophyllus. 
Full  sun. 

Phlox  amoHia.     Full  sun. 

Phlox  divaricata  canadensis. 
Partial  shade  or  full  sun. 

Phlox  divaricata  Laphamii. 
Partial  shade  or  full  sun. 

Phlox  pilosa  splendens.  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 

Phlox  subulata  varieties. 
Full  sun. 

Platycodon,  dwarf  varieties. 
Full  sun. 

Plumbago  Larpentse.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Polemonium  reptans.  Partial 
shade  or  full  sun. 

Primula,  all  varieties.  Par- 
tial shade. 

Saponaria  ocymoides.  Full 
sun. 

Saxifraga,  alpine  varieties. 
Partial   shade. 

Sedum,  all  varieties.  Full 
sun. 

Stokesia.     Full  sun. 

Veronica  prenja.     Full  sun. 

Veronica  incana.     Full  sun. 

Viola  (Tufted  Pansies).  Par- 
tial shade  or  full  sun. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

CONCKETE 

Material  necessary. — 

1.  Cement,  standard  grade. 

2.  Sand,  all  grains  that  pass  through  one-quarter  inch. 

3.  Gravel  and  crushed  stone.  Should  be  clean,  having  no  soil, 
clay  or  vegetable  matter  mixed  with  it.  It  grades  from  one- 
quarter-inch  screening  to  one  and  one-half-inch  material.  In 
using  crushed  stone,  eliminate  the  dust. 

4.  Water.    Do  not  use  acid  or  alkali  water.    Should  be  clean. 
Miscellaneous  tools  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.). —  The  following  is 

a  list  of  the  tools  and  plant  to  be  used  in  mixing,  giving  sizes, 
quantities,  etc. : 

The  lumber  for  the  concrete  board  for  a  two-bag  batch,  nine 
feet  by  ten  feet  in  size,  is  as  follows : 

Nine  pieces  seven-eighths-inch  by  twelve  inches  by  ten  feet, 
surfaced  on  one  side  and  two  edges. 

Five  pieces  two  inches  by  four  inches  by  nine  feet,  rough. 

Two  pieces  two  inches  by  two  inches  by  ten  feet,  rough. 

Two  pieces  two  inches  by  two  inches  by  nine  feet,  rough. 

The  lumber  for  the  concrete  board  for  a  four-bag  batch,  twelve 
feet  by  ten  feet  in  size,  is  as  follows : 

Twelve  pieces  seven-eighths-inch  by  twelve  inches  by  ten  feet, 
surfaced  on  one  side  and  edges. 

Five  pieces  two  inches  by  four  inches  by  twelve  feet,  rough. 

Two  pieces  two  inches  by  two  inches  by  ten  feet,  rough. 

Two  pieces  two  inches  by  two  inches  by  twelve  feet,  rough. 

For  the  runs,  planks  two,  two  and  one-half  or  three  inches 
thick  and  ten  or  twelve  inches  wide  are  needed. 

The  measuring  boxes  for  the  sand  and  stone  or  gravel  should 
have  the  following  dimensions : 

For  a  two-bag  batch  with  the  1 :  2 : 4  mixture : 

Four  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  two  feet 
rough  (for  the  end  of  the  sand  and  stone  boxes). 

Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  four  feet, 
rough  (for  the  sides  of  the  sand  box). 

Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  six  feet, 
rough  (for  the  sides  of  the  stone  box). 

424 


CONCRETE 


425 


(It  should  be  noted  that  the  two  pieces  four  feet  long  and  the 
two  pieces  six  feet  long  have  an  extra  foot  in  length  at  each  end 
for  the  purpose  of  serving  as  a  handle.) 

For  a  two-bag  batch  with  the  1 :  214  :  5  mixture  : 
Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  two  feet 
(for  the  ends  of  the  sand  box). 


Fig.  213.— Tools  used  in  making  concrete  on  the  farm,  a,  Rake;  h,  wheelbarrow; 
c,  wooden  float;  d,  square-nosed  shovel;  e,  round-nosed  shovel;  f,  bucket; 
g,  water  barrel;  h,  gravel  screen;  i,  tamper. — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  two  and 
one-half  feet  (for  the  ends  of  the  stone  box). 

Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  four  and 
one-half  feet  (for  the  sides  of  the  sand  box). 


426  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Two  pieces  one  inch  by  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  six  feet 
(for  the  sides  of  the  stone  box). 

(As  in  the  preceding  case,  the  two  pieces  four  and  one-half  feet 
long  and  the  two  pieces  six  feet  long  have  an  extra  foot  in  length 
at  each  end  to  serve  as  handles). 

For  a  four-bag  batch  (these  figures  can  be  obtained  by 
doubling  the  cubic  contents  of  the  boxes,  as  shown  above). 

Shovels:    No.  3,  square  point. 

Wheelbarrows:  At  least  two  are  necessary  for  quick  work, 
and  those  with  a  sheet-iron  body  are  to  be  preferred. 

Garden  rake. 

Water  barrel. 

Water  buckets,  two-gallon  size. 

Tamper :  Four  inches  by  four  inches  by  two  feet  six  inches, 
mth  handles  nailed  to  it. 

Garden  spade  or  spading  tool. 

Sand  screen,  which  can  be  made  by  nailing  a  piece  of  one- 
quarter-inch  mesh  wire  screen,  two  and  one-half  by  five  feet  in 
size,  to  a  frame  made  of  boards  two  by  four  inches. 


DETERMINATION  OF  QUANTITIES 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture) 

Quantities  of  JMaterials  and  the  Resulting  Amount  of  Concrete  for  a 
Two-bag  Batch 


PROPORTIONS    BY 

SIZES    OF    MEASURING 

PARTS 

BOXES     (INSIDE 

ts^ 

MEASUREMENTS) 

^1 

a 

KINDS     OF 
CONCRETE 

1 

.2 

3 

•3 

s 

MIXTURE 

be 

— 

^i 

~-^ 

O 

■2 

SAND 

STONE     OR 

.rS 

P 

■g 

•^■Z: 

u 

GRAVEL 

a 

o 

"1 

o 

^ 

m 

m 

O 

m 

w 

O 

1:2:4... 

1 

^ 

4 

2 

31 

7* 

8i 

2   feet  by  2 
feet  by  11 J 
inches 

2  feet  by  4 
feet  by  11 J 
inches 

10 

l:2i:5.. 

1 

-'i 

5 

43 

9i 

10 

2   feet  by  2 
feet     6    in- 
ches by  11 J 
inches 

2  feet  6  in- 
ches   by    4 
feet    by  11 J 
inches 

12J 

The  number  of  cubic  feet  of  concrete  that  will  be  required  for 
the  work  in  question  should  first  be  calculated.  By  multiplying 
this  number  by  the  number  under  the  proper  column,  as  shown 
in  Table  II  below,  the  amount  of  cement,  sand,  and  stone  or 
gravel  can  be  found. 


CONCKETE 

Quantities  of  Materials  in  One  Cubic  Foot  of  Concrete 


427 


MIXTURE   OF   CONCRETE 

CEMENT 

(by  barrels) 

SAND    (by  cubic 
yards) 

STONE  OR  GRAVEL 

(by  cubic  yards) 

1:2:4  

1:21/2:5     

0.058 
.048 

0.0163 
.0176 

0.0.326 
.0352 

Example. —  Let  us  suppose  that  the  work  consists  of  a  con- 
crete silo  requiring  in  all  nine  hundred  and  thirty-five  cubic  feet 
of  concrete,  of  which  seven  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet  are  to  be 
1:2:4  concrete,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  cubic  feet  are  to 
be  1 :  214  :  5  concrete.  Enough  sand  and  cement  are  also  needed 
to  paint  the  silo  inside  and  outside,  amounting  in  all  to  four 
hundred  square  yards  of  surface,  with  a  1:1  mixture  of 
sand  and  cement.  One  cubic  foot  of  1 : 1  mortar  paints  about 
fifteen  square  yards  of  surface,  and  requires  0.1856  barrel  of 
cement  and  0.0263  cubic  yard  of  sand.  The  problem  thus  works 
out  as  follows : 


CEMENT 

For  the  750  cubic  feet  of  1:2:4  concrete   (750X0.058) 

For  the  185  cubic  feet  of  1:21^:5  concrete    (185X0.048)  .  . 
For  painting   (400-M5X0.1856) 

Barrels 

43.5 
8.9 
4  9 

57.3 

SAND 

For  750  cubic  feet  of  1:2:4  concrete    (750X0.0163) 

For   185  cubic  feet  of   1:2V2:5   concrete    (185X0.0176) 

For  painting    (400^15XO.o"263) 

Barrels 

12.23 

3.26 

.70 

Total  amount  of  sand 

16  19 

STONE   OR  GRAVEL 

For  7.50  cubic  feet  of  1:2:4  concrete    (750X0.0326) 

Barrels 
24  5 

For  185  cubic  feet  of  1:2^:5  concrete   (185X0.0352) 

6.5 

Total   amount  of  stone  or  gravel 

31.0 

Thus  the  necessary  quantities  of  materials  are  about  fifty- 
seven  and  one-half  barrels  of  Portland  cement,  about  sixteen 
and  one-quarter  cubic  yards  of  sand,  and  thirty-one  cubic  yards 
of  stone  or  gravel.    It  is  a,lways  wise  to  order  two  or  three 


428  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAKMEES 

extra  barrels  of  cement  if  the  dealer  is  at  considerable  dis- 
tance, as  this  avoids  any  possible  trouble  that  a  shortage  might 
cause. 

In  case  a  natural  mixture  of  bank  sand  and  gravel  is  used,  the 
following  table  should  be  consulted  for  the  quantities  of  the 
mixture : 

Quantities  of  Materials  and  the  Resulting  Amount  of  Concrete  for  a  Two- 
bag  Batch,  Using  a  Natural  Mixture  of  Bank  Sand  and  Gravel 


^ 

proportions 

BY    PARTS 

MATERIALS 

p: 

1 
3 

sizes  of  measuring 

boxes,  mixture  of 

ll 

-a  "3 

KIND.      OP       CON- 
CRETE   MIXTURE 

il 

"of 

■!-> 

e 

a 

3 

6 

111 

V 

SAND    AND   GRAVEL 

a 

1 

1 

4 
6 

2 

7i 
9i 

8i 
10 

2   feet  6   inches   by   4 

feet  by  Hi   inches. 

2  feet  by  4  feet  by  Hi 

1:5 

10 

12J 

PRACTICAL   HINTS 

Use  care  in  selecting  the  right  kind  and  proportions  of  sand, 
gravel  and  crushed  stone. 

Cement  usually  hardens  thirty  minutes  after  it  is  wet  if 
allowed  to  stand. 

Do  not  expose  newly  set  concrete  to  the  sun  for  four  to  five 
days.     Protect  newly  set  concrete  from  frost. 

Keep  cement  in  a  dry  place  on  an  elevated  wooden  floor. 

If  cement  is  left  out  of  doors  over  night  cover  with  canvas. 

Screen  sand  at  the  pit  and  save  time,  hauling  and  labor. 

Sand  of  various  sized  grains  is  most  desirable,  giving  more 
strength. 

Never  use  sand  that  softens  in  water. 

Large  pebbles  and  stone  may  be  used  m  constructing  heavy 
foundations  and  abutments. 

For  reinforced  concrete  work,  material  that  passes  through 
one-inch  rings  is  recommended. 

Mix  thoroughly.  Concrete  having  a  gray  streaky  appearance 
is  not  well  mixed. 

Mix  sand  and  cement  thorougly  before  applying  the  water.. 


CONCRETE  429 

Do  not  wash  or  allow  the  mixture  to  flow  off.  Mix  from  the 
center  out  until  the  entire  pile  is  saturated  with  water. 

Gravel  and  crushed  stone  should  be  moistened  before  mixing 
with  cement  and  sand. 

All  forms  should  be  placed  before  concrete  is  mixed. 

Clean  concrete  from  tools  and  boards  when  not  in  use  and 
while  the  mixture  is  soft. 

Linseed  or  cjdinder  oil  will  prevent  tools  from  rusting. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

RUNNING  WATER  FOR  HOUSE  AND  OUTBUILDINGS 
By  H.  F.  Milleb 

The  very  first  point  to  consider  in  preparing  a  new  homestead 
or  in  remodeling  an  old  one  is  the  installation  of  a  water  supply 
and  the  proper  arrangement  of  the  rooms  in  the  house  which  are 
to  have  fixtures  supplied  with  water. 

What  fixtures  to  install. —  If  there  is  a  bedroom  downstairs, 
this  should  have  a  lavatory.  The  kitchen  should  have  at  least 
one  sink,  and  if  there  is  a  man 's  washroom,  which  is  a  great  con- 
venience, this  should  also  have  a  large  sink.  The  bathroom 
should  have  a  standard  size  enameled  tub,  preferably  fitted  with 
shower  attachment;  a  good  lavatory,  and  a  standard  make  of 
closet.  The  laundry  in  the  basement  should  have  a  two-compart- 
ment built-in  tub.  The  laundry  tub  should  be  sloped  toward  the 
trays  and  be  fitted  with  a  floor  trap  at  the  lowest  point. 

Points  to  consider  in  selecting  a  pumping  equipment. —  In 
planning  for  a  water  system  the  following  questions  should  be 
considered  in  the  order  given  : 

1.  From  what  source  will  be  water  be  obtained  ? 

2.  How  much  water  will  you  require  each  day? 

3.  What  type  of  system  do  you  wish  to  install  ? 

4.  How  is  pump  to  be  operated  ? 

1.  Source  of  water  supply. —  The  water  for  house  service  can 
be  obtained  from  one  or  more  of  the  following  sources :  Wells, 
springs,  cisterns,  lakes  or  running  streams.  The  thing  to  decide 
now  is  whether  the  supply  is  to  be  taken  from  a  shallow  well 
(cistern,  spring  or  other  source  near  the  surface  of  the  ground) 
or  whether  it  is  to  be  taken  from  a  deep  well,  or  both. 

Where  the  well  water  is  too  hard  to  be  satisfactory  for  bath 
and  laundry  purposes  many  people  prefer  to  have  two  pumps, 
one  to  supply  soft  water  from  cistern  and  the  other  to  furnish 
the*  well  or  spring  water  for  drinking  purposes.  Where  a  tank 
system  is  installed  in  such  cases  it  is  necessary,  of  course,  to 
have  two  separate  tanks. 

Water  used  from  springs  or  surface  sources,  like  rivers  and 
lakes,  should  always  be  examined  for  impurities  before  it  is  used 
for  drinking  purposes,  as  impure  water  is  one  of  the  frequent 

430 


EUNNING  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       431 

causes  of  disease.  The  same  thing  applies  to  the  shallow  well,  as 
it  is  very  apt  to  receive  impurities  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground  which  have  not  passed  through  enough  earth  for  proper 
purification.  Usually  the  best  source  of  all  is  the  deep  well,  as 
the  water  from  this  source  is  safe  and  in  most  cases  cooler  and 
more  palatable.  Springs  and  lakes  are  just  as  satisfactory,  how- 
ever, and  sometimes  more  so  if  the  water  is  found  to  be  pure. 

a.  Slialloiv  ivells. —  In  this  chapter  shallow  w^ells  are  consid- 
ered as  those  in  which  the  water  level  is  near  enough  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  so  that  water  can  be  drawn  up  by  suction ; 
sjirings,  cisterns,  lakes  and  rivers  can  come  under  this  head  in 
selecting  the  equipment.  The  suction  lift  is  usually  considered 
about  twenty  feet,  but  it  is  a  quantity  that  will  vary  with  the 
atmospheric  pressure  of  the  locality,  being  practically  twenty- 
two  feet  at  sea  level.  The  best  practice  is  to  eliminate  the  suc- 
tion lift,  if  possible,  by  having  the  cylinder  under  water ;  in  no 
case  is  it  good  practice  to  have  the  cylinder  more  than  twenty- 
two  feet  above  the  water  level.  With  pumps  which  have  the 
cylinder  separate  from  and  below  the  standard,  the  most  com- 
mon type,  the  distance  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the 
water  level  can  be  more  than  twenty  feet  as  the  cylinder  will  be 
below  the  surface.  The  cylinder  is  the  pump  proper,  and  all 
distances  should  be  measured  from  it. 

h.  Deep  ivells. —  Deep  wells  are  considered  as  those  in  which 
the  water  is  too  far  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  be  drawn 
up  by  suction.  In  these  wells  it  is  always  necessary  to  have  the 
cylinder  and  standard  separate,  connected  by  a  section  of  pipe. 
The  length  of  this  pipe  should  be  sufficient  to  bring  the  cylinder 
within  suction  distance  of  the  water.  Here  again,  however,  the 
best  practice  is  to  have  the  cylinder  below  the  water  level,  as 
this  keeps  the  cylinder  primed  and  the  valves  will  not  dry  out  if 
the  pump  is  not  used  for  a  long  time. 

c.  Location  and  coyistruction. —  In  providing  a  well  there  are 
two  important  points  to  be  considered:  First,  its  location;  sec- 
ond, its  construction.  Both  of  these  factors  Avill  affect  the  purity 
and  liealthfulness  of  the  water  obtained.  If  the  water  is  taken 
from  a  shallow  well,  the  well  should  be  at  least  thirty-five  or 
forty  yards  from  any  barn  yard,  cesspool,  vault  or  other  source 
which  might  contaminate  the  water  by  seepage  througli  the  soil. 
If  possible,  it  should  be  always  located  on  higher  ground  than 
these  impurities  so  the  natural  flow  of  water  will  not  be  from 
them  toward  the  well.  A\niere  a  deep  cased  well  is  used,  the 
danger  of  contamination  is  practically  eliminated.     For  this 


432  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


reason  a  good  many  wells  of  this  type  are  driven  under  the 
basements  of  barns,  dairy  buildings,  etc.,  and  the  pump  located 
in  the  basement  where  it  can  be  operated  by  the  same  line  shaft 
or  the  same  engine  that  is  used  to  operate  cream  separators,  feed 
cutters  and  other  equipment. 

The  construction  of  the  well  should  be  such  that  the  surface 
water  cannot  enter  it  without  having  passed  through  a  good 

depth  of  soil  for  filtration. 
The  type  of  construction 
can  be  one  of  three  gen- 
eral classes,  dug,  driven 
or  drilled.  The  different 
types  of  deep  and  shallow 
wells  are  shown  below. 

Dug  wells. — Fig  215  (a) 
shows  the  dug  type,  which 
is  made  by  digging  a  large 
hole  and  lining  it  with 
masonry.  In  a  properly 
constructed  well  this  ma- 
sonry should  be  made 
tight  by  cementing  for  a 
depth  of  at  least  ten  feet 
from  the  top,  so  that  the 
surface  water  cannot  en- 
t  e  r  without  passing 
through  this  depth  of  soil. 
The  masonry  should  be 
carried  eight  or  ten  inches 
above  the  surface  and  sur- 
rounded with  cement,  slop- 
ing from  the  well,  and  the 
cover  should  be  made  ab- 
solutely tight.  A  trough  should  be  provided  under  the  pump 
spout,  if  the  spout  discharge  is  used,  so  the  waste  water  will  be 
carried  away  from  the  well.  Another  plan  sometimes  followed 
is  to  place  the  pump  at  one  side  of  the  well  instead  of  having 
it  directly  over  the  well  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

Driven  wells. —  Fig.  215  (b)  shows  the  driven  type.  This  well 
is  constructed  by  attaching  a  well  point,  such  as  illustrated,  to 
the  end  of  the  pipe  and  driving  the  point  into  the  ground  until 
water  is  reached.  The  cylinder  is  then  installed  in  a  dry  well 
as  shown  where  it  is  easily  accessible.     The  point  is  provided 


•   -  rfeymji 


Fig.    214.— Typical 
system.     Hand  opi 


nf    running   water 
atcd  piunp  is  used  in 


this   case   to   take   water    from   well    and 
force  it  to  gravity  tank  in  attic. 


EUNNINa  WATEE  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       433 


with  a  short  length  of  pipe  with  perforations  which  permit  the 
water  to  enter  the  pipe  and  keep  out  the  gravel  and  sand.  This 
type  is  essentially  for  shallow  wells,  as  with  the  cylinder  in  the 
dry  well  water  cannot  be  drawn  up  more  than  twenty  feet  by 
suction.  If  a  driven  well  is  wanted  and  the  water  is  more  than 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface,  it  is  necessary  to  dig  a  deep  dry 
well  so  the  cylinder  can  be  installed  below  ground  within  suction 
distance  of  the  water. 

Drilled  icells. —  Fig.  215  (c)  shows  a  drilled  well,  usually  the 
best  type  of  all,  for  no  impurities  can  enter  from  the  surface. 


b 
Fig.  215.- 


-  Types  of  wells. 


This  type  of  well  consists  of  a  small  hole  from  three  to  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter  drilled  through  the  various  layers  of  surface 
soil,  clay  and  rock  until  a  pure  stream  of  water  is  reached.  This 
hole  is  lined  with  an  iron  casing  w^hich  prevents  its  caving  in 
and  keeps  out  all  the  water  except  that  which  enters  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  type  of  well  can  pass  through  as  many  water-bearing 
soils  as  desired,  and  none  but  the  water  of  the  lowest  streams 
will  enter.  The  casing  is  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  pump 
cylinder  so  that  it  can  be  lowered  below  the  water  surface  or  as 
near  the  water  as  is  necessary,  and  water  can  be  pumped  from 
any  required  depth. 

Fig.  215(d)  shows  a  drilled  well  with  a  dry  well  installed  above 
it  to  accommodate  the  lower  half  of  a  pump  made  for  under- 
ground discharge. 


434  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FAEMERS 


If  the  source  of  supply  and  the  tank  are  a  considerable  dis- 
tance apart  so  that  pipes  one  hundred  feet  long  or  more  have  to 
be  laid  between,  the  friction  in  the  pipe  will  act  the  same  as 
though  there  were  a  small  increase  in  the  height  the  water  has 
to  be  pumped.  In  such  cases  this  friction  should  be  considered 
in  measuring  the  head. 

If  an  elevated  tank  is  a  considerable  distance  from  the  cocks 
where  the  water  is  to  be  used,  it  should  be  placed  a  little  higher 
than  would  otherwise  be  necessary  to 
make  up  for  the  loss  of  pressure  in  the 
long  pipe  lines.  A  good  plan  is  to  have 
the  bottom  of  the  tank  ten  feet  above  the 
highest  cock;  then  ample  pressure  will 
be  insured  at  all  cocks. 

2.  Amount  of  water  required. — After 
determining  the  source  of  supply,  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  before  the  proper 
pump  can  be  selected  is  to  figure  the 
amount  of  water  required  per  day.  This 
can  be  estimated  pretty  closely  by  using 
the  following  table.  This  information 
is  necessary  to  determine  the  size  and 


Fig.  216. — Gravity  system  with  ram.    Tank  located  in  the  attic. 

capacity  of  the  pump  to  be  used  and,  in  the  case  of  tank  systems, 
to  determine  also  what  capacity  the  tanks  should  have. 

Each ,  member    of    the    family    for    all    purposes,    including 

kitchen,  bath,  water  closet,  laundry,  etc will  require  25  gallons 

Each  horse ,. will  require  10  gallons 

Each  cow  will  require  10  gallons 

Each  hog   will  require     2  gallons 

Each  sheep will  require     1  gallon 

If  water  is  to  be  used  in  the  house  only,  and  there  is  a  family 
of  six,  the  tank  should  have  a  capacity  of  6X25  =  150  gallons 
for  a  one-day  supply. 

If  water  is  to  be  used  in  the  house  and  barn,  and  there  is  a 
family  of  six,  with  eight  horses,  twelve  cows,  twenty  hogs,  and 
ten  sheep  to  be  provided  for,  the  tank  should  have  a  capacity  of 


EUNNINa  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       435 


0X25+8X10+12X10+20X2+10X1  =  400  gallons  for  a  one- 
day  supply. 

3.    Selecting  the  system. —  There  are  two  general  types  of  run- 
ning water  systems,  viz. : 

a.  Gravity  system. —  In  this  system  the  water  is  pumped  into 
an  elevated  tank,  located  higher  than  the  highest  faucet,  so  that 
the  water  will  flow  by  gravity.  Pumps  for  this  system  can  be 
operated  by  hand,  windmill  or  power, 
or,  where  there  is  running  water,  an 
hydraulic  ram  can  be  used. 

Where  an  electric  motor  is  used  to 
operate  the  pump,  an  automatic  device 
can  be  used  to  start  the  motor  when 
the  tank  becomes  empty  and  to  stop  it 
when  the  tank  is  full. 

b.  Pneumatic  pressure  system. —  By 
this  system  the  water  is  pumped  into 
an  air-tight  tank,  usually  located  below 
the  ground  to  keep  the  water  cool  for 
drinking  purposes  and  free  from  the 


dust  as  well  as  to  protect  it  from  freez- 
ing.    The  water  is  forced  up  to  the 
faucets  by  the  air  pressure  in  the  tank. 
Air,  to  take  off  leakage  through  the 
w^ater,  is  pumped  into  the  tank  either 
by  a  separate  air  pump  or  sometimes 
by  an  air  jDump  attachment  which  fits 
onto  the  water  pump  and  which 
causes  it  to  pump  air  with  the 
water.    Pumps  for  this  system 
can  be  operated  either  by  hand 
or  power. 

^\Tiere  an  electric  motor  is 
used  to  operate  the  pump,  an 
automatic  device  can  be  used  which  wall  start  the  motor  Avhen 
the  minimum  pressure  is  reached  and  stop  it  when  it  reaches 
the  maximum.^ 

4.    How  is  pump  to  be  operated?  —  Having  determined  the 
source  of  supply  and  figured  the  capacity  required,  it  is  neces- 


FiG.  217. — Typical  pnoumatic  pressure 
system  with  liaiid  (iperated  pump. 


*  One  great  advantage  of  a  tank  system  is  its  value  as  a  protection  against  fire. 
This  is  a  point  to  be  taken  carefully  into  consideration  when  selecting  a  system,  as 
it  is  a  great  advantage  to  have  water  under  pressure,  such  as  is  afforded  by  either 
the  elevated  or  pneumatic  tank  systems,  in  case  of  fire  emergencies. 


436  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMEES 


sary  to  decide  which  general  type  of  equipment  to  install- — 
whether  one  operated  by  hand,  windmill,  gasoline  engine  or  other 
power,  or  by  an  hydraulic  ram  which  operates  automatically, 
using  the  force  of  a  few  feet  of  fall  between  the  source  of  supply 
and  ram. 

When  to  use  hand,  windmill  or  poiver  pumps. — Hand-operated 
pumps  are  recommended  when  small  quantities  of  water  are 
required,  as  for  barn  service  only,  or  for  trough  service  only. 


feirlA.  ^ 

^ 

P^JIlr<^ff^' 

1    -ifl^^BRBi 

^^Wmm    wr~ 

f^^l , ;        ^-r.^lM 

^...''^T*;|« 

i 

mh-^^^- 

^^.^  '  mm- 

l^~ 

^^^2:-    n' ■-»^^--i!i 

,  _        ,.-.;"'  <t«»«i#S8a!iS**.»*»ii3«MI*ta«l 

□ 

i 

wmmmm 
i 

Fig.  218. —  Electric  motor  drive  complete  water  system,  consisting  of  thirty- 
gallon  tank,  three  gallons  per  minute,  pump  belted  to  one-quarter  horse 
power  motor,  automatic  electric  starter,  pressure  gauge  and  relief  valve. 
Can  be  furnished  with  110  or  220  volt  A.  C.  or  D.  C.  motor  or  with 
thirty-two-volt  motor  for  operation  on  farm  lighting  system. 

When  water  is  wanted  sufficient  to  supply  barn,  house,  trough 
and  perhaps  other  outbuildings,  the  windmill,  power  or  hydrau- 
lic ram  equipments  should  be  used. 

The  windmill  has  the  advantage  over  the  hand  system  in  that 
it  eliminates  the  manual  labor.  As  the  windmill  cannot  be 
depended  upon  at  all  times,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a 


RUNNING  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       437 


larger  tank  with  this  system  than  with  the  others  so  there  will 
be  a  reserve  supply  in  the  tank  to  tide  over  days  in  which  there 
is  not  sufficient  breeze  to  operate  the  mill. 

The  power  pump  driven  by  a  gasoline  or  kerosene  engine, 
electric  motor  or  w^ater  wheel  is  an  ideal  equipment  where  run- 
ning water  is  needed  in  any  quantity  for  the  house,  barn,  trough, 
etc.  It  eliminates  the  manual  labor  and  is  independent  of 
weather  conditions;  water  can  be  pumped  whenever  it  is  desired. 
The  expenses  for  gasoline  or  other  fuel  is  very  small ;  while  the 
engine  can  be  made  portable  and  used  to  great  advantage  for 
grinding  feed,  sawing  wood,  winnowing  grain,  separating  cream 
or  other  work  about  the  farm. 

Improved  hydrauUc  rams. —  The  hydraulic  ram  is  |g^ 
a  self-acting  pump  which  utilizes  the  momentum  of  |0 
a  slight  fall  of  water  to  force  a  part  of  the  water         - '^ 


SUPPLY  P/PE 


"G"'RSQU/RE-D  HBAD  OF  rALL 
"H-REQU/RED  L.ENGTH  OF  DR/VE  P/PE 


DRAIN  P/PE 


Fig.  21!). —  These  drawings  sliow  how  ram  and  pipe  should  be  installed  and  also  indi- 
cate data  required  by  nianufacUircr  before  proper  ram  can  be  recommended. 

to  an  elevation  many  times  as  high  as  the  fall  to  operate  the 
ram.  The  simplicity,  effectiveness  and  durability  of  this 
machine  make  it  one  of  the  most  useful  as  well  as  the  most 
economical  of  the  equipments  available  for  forcing  water  to 
distant  and  elevated  points. 

A  very  slight  fall  only  is  required  to  operate  the  ram,  but  as  the 
amount  of  fall  is  increased  its  operation  becomes  more  powerful, 
and  it  will  force  the  water  in  a  proportionately  larger  flow  or  to  a 
proportionately  higher  elevation.  The  amount  of  water  deliv- 
ered, or  the  proportion  of  the  water  raised  to  the  amount  wasted 


438  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


in  operating  the  ram,  varies  with  the  amount  of  fall  and  height  to 
which  it  is  elevated.  An  increase  in  available  fall  or  a  decrease 
in  the  height  the  ram  has  to  elevate  the  water  will  cause  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  amount  of  water  delivered  by  the  ram. 
Rams  are  used  for  a  large  variety  of  pumping  duties,  such  as 
supplying  Avater  for  dwellings,  hotels,  factories,  railway  tanks, 
stock  watering  troughs  and  so  on.  Water  can  be  used  directly 
from  the  ram  or  from  a  storage  tank  which  is  kept  filled  by  the 
ram.  The  more  common  practice  is  to  use  the  storage  tank,  as 
in  this  way  a  large  supply  is  always  available.  Water  can  then 
be  drawn  from  the  tank  as  rapidly  as  desired  for  running  water 

supply    for    bath    room, 
kitchen  and  closet  in  the 
house,    for   watering   the 
stock  at  the  barn  or  for 
fire  protection,  irrigation, 
etc.      The    ram    operates 
continuously,    day    and 
night,     consequently     the 
water  used  during  times 
w^hen  there  is  a  large  de- 
mand on  the  tank  is  re- 
placed during  periods 
when  the  demand  is  low. 
The  advantages  of  the  hydraulic  ram  are  that  its  operation 
involves  no  labor  or  expense,  and,  once  started,  it  will  continue 
to  'pump  day  and  night  without  attention,  as  long  as  the  supply 
of  water  is  sufficient. 

Const  ruction. —  The  miproved  design  of  impetus  valve  used 
on  Gould's  Rams  gives  exceptionally  high  efficiency  and  reliable 
operation.  The  air  chamber  is  large  and  all  parts  are  strongly 
built  and  carefully  proi:iortioned. 

The  sectional  illustration  shows  the  various  working  parts  of 
the  ram,  and  gives  a  good  idea  of  its  strength  and  simplicity. 
This  sectional  view  illustrates  the  working  parts  of  a  ram,  suit- 
able for  streams  supplying  eleven  to  twenty  gallons  per  minute, 
and  for  raising  from  fifty-five  to  one  hundred  gallons  per  hour 
to  elevations  up  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  By  referring 
to  this  view,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  construction  consists  of 
the  air  chamber;  "A,"  the  body;  "B,'^  the  shifting  valve  or  air 
inlet;  "C,"  the  check  or  inner  valve;  ''E,''  located  between  the 
supply  pipe  and  the  air-chamber,  and  the  impetus  valve,  ^'F," 
located  at  the  end  of  the  supply  pipe. 


Fig.  220.— Hydraulic  ram  for  filling  tanks  not 
more  than  120  feet  above  the  source  of 
supply. 


RUNNING  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       439 

Hoiv  the  ram  operates. —  The  water  flows  down  through  the 
supply  pipe  "G,"  passing  into  "B"  and  on  through  the  outlet 
in  the  impetus  valve  ^^F,"  until  the  constantly  increasing  pres- 
sure lifts  this  valve  and  closes  it.  This  stops  the  flow  of  water 
in  this  direction,  and  the  shock  due  to  its  sudden  stoppage  causes 
it  to  force  open  the  check  valve  "E,'^  which  is  the  only  other 
outlet.  AMien  sufficient  water  passes  through  "E"  into  the  air- 
chamber  *' A,"  to  relieve  the  pressure  due  to  the  sudden  stoppage 
in  *'B,'^  the  check  valve  ''E"  closes,  the  impetus  valve  "F" 
opens  again  and  the  same  operations  are  repeated.  The  air  in 
the  chamber  ''A,"  acts  as  a  cushion,  absorbing  the  shock  and 
maintaining  a  steady,  even  flow  of  water  through  the  delivery 
jDipe  ''H."  As  shown  by  this  description  of  the  ram's  action,  a 
portion  of  the  water  is  wasted  to  operate  the  ram,  but  the  power 
which  operates  it  is  obtained  at  no  cost,  and  no  attention  is 
required. 

How  to  select  a  ram. —  In  order  to  determine  the  size,  the  ram 
should  be  for  any  certain  service,  the  following  data  and  meas- 
urements should  be  ascertained.  The  measurements  referred  to 
are  illustrated  in  Fig.  8. 

1.  Quantity  of  water  in  gallons  per  minute  available  for 
supply. 

2.  Quantity  of  water  in  gallons  required  at  discharge  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

3.  Vertical  fall  in  feet,  from  supply  to  proposed  location  of 
ram'^A." 

4.  Distance  from  supply  to  ram  "B." 

5.  Vertical  distance  from  ram  to  point  of  discharge  ^'C." 

6.  Required  length  of  discharge  pipe  from  ram  ''D." 

For  example,  suppose  we  ^\^sh  to  force  water  to  an  elevation 
of  forty  feet  above  the  ram ;  by  referring  to  the  table  below,  we 
find  that  a  No.  4  ram  with  a  flow  of  seven  gallons  per  minute 
delivered  to  the  ram,  Avith  a  fall  (A)  of  five  feet,  through  forty 
feet  of  drive  pipe  (B)  will  elevate  about  thirty-five  gallons  per 
hour,  or  eight  hundred  and  forty  gallons  in  twenty-four  hours 
to  a  point  forty  feet  above  the  ram. 


440  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Propobtionats  Head  of  Fall  Giving  Highest  Efficiency  in  Operation  of 
Hydkaulic  Rams 


TO  dfliyeh  water  to 

height  of 

PLACE  BAM 

UNDER 

CONDUCTED 

THBOUGH 

20  feet  above  ram 

3  feet  head  of  fall 

30  feet 

of  drive  pipe 

30     " 

4    " 

"        " 

30     " 

a            << 

40     « 

5    " 

"        " 

40     " 

50     " 

7    "        " 

"        " 

50     " 

60     " 

8    "        " 

«         a 

60     " 

80     " 

10    "        " 

80     '' 

100     " 

14    " 

" 

100     " 

120     " 

17    " 

125     " 

*Any  size  ram  may  be  operated  under  these  conditions  and  will  afford  the  following 
approximate  delivery : 


No. 


2  requires 

3  " 
4 

5 


2  to     3  gals,  per  minute  and  will  deliver 

2  to     4  " 

3  to     7  " 
6  to  12  " 

11  to  20  " 

18  to  35  " 

30  to  60  " 


10  to     15  gals. 

per  hour 

10  to    20     " 

"        " 

15  to    35     " 

"        " 

30  to    60     " 

"        " 

55  to  100     " 

"        '• 

90  to  175     " 

"        " 

150  to  300     " 

u            u 

Installing  the  ram. —  As  a  general  rule,  there  should  be  one 
foot  of  fall  for  each  seven  feet  of  elevation ;  the  ram  should  never 
be  installed  under  less  than  three  feet  of  fall,  as  this  is  the 
smallest  fall  under  which  it  will  operate.  The  fall  between  the 
source  of  supply  and  ram  should  not  be  greater  than  specified 
in  the  table  above,  as  a  greater  fall  causes  an  unnecessary  strain 
on  the  ram  and  piping,  and  will  interfere  with  the  operation  of 
the  ram. 

Both  the  drive  and  discharge  pipes  for  the  various  ram  sizes 
should  have  the  diameters  given  in  the  tables,  page  114;  the 
length  of  the  drive  pipes  should  be  the  same  as  the  vertical 
heights  the  Avater  has  to  be  lifted.  For  example,  if  the  water  has 
to  be  lifted  a  vertical  height  of  forty  feet,  the  drive  pipe  should 
be  forty  feet  in  length.  When  a  double  ram  is  installed  it 
should  be  remembered  that  a  separate  drive  pipe  is  required 
for  each  of  the  two  rams. 

Sometimes  the  lay  of  the  land  is  such  that  it  is  impossible  to 
get  the  required  amount  of  fall  for  the  drive  pipe  within  the 
length  the  drive  pipe  should  be  according  to  the  preceding  rule. 

*  It  is  assumed  that  the  smaller  rams  will  not  be  selected  for  extremely  high  lifts, 
as  the  friction  loss  of  water  in  a  small  drive  and  discharge  pipe  renders  their  use 
impracticable. 

Where  water  supply  will  permit,  always  select  ram  of  ample  size  for  requirements. 


RUNNING  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       441 

When  this  is  the  case,  the  water  should  be  piped  from  the  source 
to  a  point  within  the  required  distance  of  the  ram  location.  At 
this  point,  an  open  barrel  can  be  placed  and  the  drive  pipe  con- 
nected to  it,  as  shown  by  Plate  11.  This  eliminates  the  friction 
loss  caused  by  the  water  flowing  through  the  long  drive  pipe  that 
would  otherwise  be  necessary. 

The  barrel  can  be  connected  to  the  source  of  supply  by  ordi- 
nary drain  or  soil  pipes  which  should  be  at  least  a  size  larger 
than  the  drive  pipe  leading  from  the  barrel  to  the  ram. 

It  is  good  practice  to  place  the  ram  in  a  small  house,  and  bolt 
or  fasten  it  securely  to  a  timber  or  masonry  foundation  which 
will  form  a  solid  support  for  the  ram  and  relieve  the  connecting 
pipes  of  undue  strain.  The  ram  should  be  elevated  above  the 
floor  a  sufficient  distance  so  that  the  waste  water  cannot  cover 
the  snifting  or  air  valve.  If  the  drain  from  the  ram  is  properly 
made,  this  height  need  not  be  very  great,  as  the  water  will  be 
carried  off  as  rapidly  as  it  flows  out  of  the  impetus  valve. 

The  inlet  of  the  drive  pipe  should  be  placed  so  that  it  will 
always  be  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  (This  does  not  affect 
the  fall  as  the  fall  is  measured  from  the  surface  of  the  water, 
regardless  of  where  the  drive  pipe  enters  the  supply.)  If  the  inlet 
is  not  below  the  surface  sufficiently,  the  level  may  drop  to  a  point 
where  air  will  enter  the  drive  pipe  and  cause  the  ram  to  stop. 

All  joints  in  the  drive  pipe  should  be  air  tight,  or  air  will  be 
drawn  into  the  ram  with  the  same  results  as  when  the  w^ater  level 
drops  below  the  inlet. 

A  strainer  should  always  be  placed  on  the  inlet  to  prevent  the 
pipe  or  ram  from  becoming  choked  with  debris.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  surround  this  strainer  with  a  large  wire  netting  to  pre- 
vent it  from  becoming  clogged.  If  possil)le,  turns  should  be 
avoided  in  both  the  drive  and  discharge  pipes.  AVhen  this  is  not 
possible,  the  elbows  or  turns  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  so 
there  will  be  as  slight  obstruction  to  the  free,  easy  flow  of  water 
as  can  be  obtained. 

Hoiv  to  start  the  rmn. —  AVhen  the  ram  is  installed,  all  that  is 
necessary  to  start  it  in  operation  is  to  press  down  the  impetus 
valve,  letting  the  water  discharge,  and  then  allowing  it  to  rise. 
After  repeating  this  operation  a  few  times,  the  ram  should  con- 
tinue to  operate.  If  it  does  not,  the  impetus  valve  stroke  is  not 
properly  adjusted.  By  changing  the  adjustment  and  trying 
again,  the  adjustment  which  gives  the  best  operation  will  readily 
be  obtained.  This  adjustment  is  made  by  adjusting  the  nuts  on 
the  impetus  valve. 


442  THE  HANDBOOK  FOK  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

If  the  head  happens  to  be  too  low,  it  will  be  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  operation  of  the  valve  will  be  weak ;  if  the  head  is  too 
high,  the  excessive  pressure  will  prevent  the  valve  from  opening. 

WATER   SUPPLY   DATA   BLANK 

Information  Required  for  Making  Recommendations  for  Water 
Supply  Pump  Installations 

1.  What  is  the  source  of  supply?     (Well,  cistern,  lake,  spring  or  river) 

What  is  the  inside  diameter  ? 

What  is  the  total  depth? 

2.  If  a  well   \  How  far  from  top  of  well  to  water  level  ? 

Has  well  been  tested  ? 

How  much  does  water  fall  during  continuous  pumping? 

3.  If  cistern,  spring  or  river,  what  should  be  the  vertical  distance,  from  supply  to 

place  where  pump  could  be  located  ? 

4.  About  how  many  gallons  do  you  wish  to  pump  per  hour  ? 

5.  Do  you  wish  a  lift  pump  to  deliver  water  at  spout  only  ? 

6.  Is  pump  to  be  placed  in  house  or  barn  at  some  distance  from  the  well?     If  so, 

about  how  far  away  from  the  well  ? 

And  how  much  higher  will  pump  be  above  top  of  well  ? 

7.  Do  you  wish  to  force  water  to  place  above  pump?     If  so,  how  far  above  the 

pump  ? 

Do  you  wish  to  force  water  to  place  some  distance  away  from  pump?    If  so,  how 
far  away  from  the  pump,  measured  on  the  level  ? 

8.  Make  rough  sketch  on  back  showing  about  what  are  conditions,  distance,  etc. 

9.  Do  you  prefer  elevated  or  underground  tank  ? 

I  Hand 
Windmill 
Pump  jack 
If  other  power,  what  kind  ? 

If  Electric  Motor,  Give  Following  Information 

(a)  Is  it  direct  current?   If  so,  what  voltage? 

(b)  Is  it  alternating  current?    If  so,  what  voltage? 

Cycles Phase 

Note.— It  is  best  to  consult  local  lighting  and  power  company  concerning  the  kind  of 
current  available. 
If  gas,  gasoline  or  steam  engine  give  revolutions  per  minute  and  diameter  of 
pulley. 


Name 

Address 

Remarks   

Dealer's  name. 
Address 


RUNNING  WATER  FOR  FARM  BUILDINGS       443 

RAM  DATA  BLANK 

Information  Required  for  Making-  Recommendations  for  Ram 
Installations 

1.  IIow  many  gallons  per  minute  flow  from  spring  or  stream? 

2.  ITow  many  gallons  per  24  hours  do  you  need  at  the  tank? 

3.  What  is  the  vertical  fall  in  feet  from  the  spring  water  level  to  the  point  where  the 

ram  will  be  located?     (See  "A"  in  diagram) 

4.  What  is  the  distance  between  the  point  of  supply  and  the  point  where  the  ram 

will  be  located?     (See  "B"  in  diagram) 

5.  What  is  the  vertical  height  in  feet  the  water  has  to  be  lifted  from  ram  to  tank? 

(See  "C"  in  diagram)    

6.  What  is  the  length  of  the  pipe  necessary  between  the  ram  and  tank?     (See  "D"  in 

diagram )    

Xame 

Address 

Remarks 

Name  and  address  of  your  dealer 


While  the  illustrations  show  typical  installations  for  house 
water  supply  only,  these  same  systems  can  be  made  to  supply 
water  to  cattle  barns,  stables  and  other  outbuildings  as  well  as 
watering  troughs ;  also  for  sprinkling  lawns,  gardens  and  flower 
beds.  Care  should  be  taken  in  figuring  the  amount  of  water 
required  in  order  that  a  tank  and  pumping  equipment  of  suffi- 
cient capacity  may  be  selected. 


CHAPTEE   XXVI 

USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  FARM 
By  C.  Craig  and  A.  La  Motte,  Du  Pont 

Saving  man  power. —  Lands  have  been  cleared,  drained  and 
tilled  for  many  years  by  the  prodigal  use  of  labor  or  man  power. 

Larger  areas  are  yet  to  be  cleared  and  further  improvements 
must  be  made  in  millions  of  other  acres  in  order  to  supply  the 
ever-increasing  demand  for  food  and  clothing. 

Man  is  too  intelligent  and  valuable  in  other  ways  to  have  his 
efforts  and  energy  entirely  consumed  by  the  heavy  forms  of 
brute  drudgery  that  can  better  be  done  by  the  employment  of 
modern  labor  savers. 

His  knowledge,  intelligence  and  energy  are  much  more  valu- 
able to  himself,  the  community,  and  the  country  at  large  Avhen 
employed  in  directing  the  forces  which  have  been  placed  at  his 
disposal  by  nature  and  science. 

The  work  must  be  done  better  than  ever  before,  as  the  modern 
horse  and  power-drawn  farm  equipment  cannot  be  used  to 
advantage  save  on  well-cleared  lands. 

Old  methods  of  developing  land  by  man  power  alone  can  be 
used  no  longer,  for  the  greatest  scarcity,  at  present,  is  labor. 
It  is  indeed  so  scarce,  and  when  available  so  expensive,  that  it  is 
becoming  increasingly  difficult  to  make  developments  or  to 
install  labor-saving  devices  in  order  to  effect  a  saving  in  the 
future. 

In  many  cases,  there  seems  to  be  no  escape  from  the  condition ; 
but  in  developing  lands  explosives,  the  modern  conservers  of 
man  power,  fill  the  needs  and  prove  most  efficient  in  doing  the 
classes  of  work  mentioned  below. 

No  matter  how  difficult  it  may  be  to  get  men,  explosives  are 
always  available  and  the  demand  for  increased  amounts  can  be 
quickly  supplied  for  the  job. 

A  saving  in  man  power  is  a  saving  in  money.  Explosives  are 
now  included  with  horses,  steam  and  gasoline  as  conservers  of 
manual  effort. 

Dynamite  is  being  used  successfully  as  a  time  and  labor  saver 
in  many  ways,  principal  among  Avhich  are  the  following : 

444 


USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  FAKM  445 

For  blasting  stumps,  boulders,  ditches ;  draining  swamps  and 
wet  spots;  planting  trees,  vines,  shrubbery  and  hedges;  reju- 
venating orchard  soil;  blasting  post,  telephone  and  telegraph 
pole  holes ;  splitting  logs ;  blasting  wells,  ice  jams,  log  jams,  cel- 
lars, trenches,  sewers  and  gutters,  fish  ponds  and  small  reser- 
voirs; for  dynamiting  mud  holes  in  roads;  cleaning  out  and 
enlarging  mill  races,  sluiceways,  etc.;  straightening  channels; 
clearing  right-of-way  for  highways ;  loosening  gravel,  rock,  clay, 
etc. ;  breaking  up  castings ;  terracing  hilly  land  to  prevent  wash- 
ing of  topsoil,  and  exterminating  gophers  and  other  burrowing 
animals. 

Hauling  and  storing". —  Prompt  removal  from  freight  station. 
—  The  law  requires  prompt  removal  of  explosives,  including 
blasting  supplies,  from  freight  stations.  Those  expecting  ship- 
ments should  arrange  with  the  freight  agent  or  station  master  to 
give  notification  immediately  on  arrival  of  shipment,  which  must 
be  removed  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Hauling. —  A\nien  transporting  explosives  by  team,  always 
keep  the  wagon  boxes  thoroughly  swept.  When  using  an  open 
wagon,  protect  the  load  from  sparks  and  rain  with  a  robe  or 
canvas  cover.  Lay  the  cases  of  explosives  flat  and  so  that  they 
will  not  shift,  and  never  haul  detonators  and  explosives  together. 
The  detonators  do  not  weigh  much  and  can  be  brought  along  on 
some  other  trip. 

If  blasting  caps  are  purchased  from  a  dealer,  in  the  tin  boxes 
separate  from  the  wooden  shipping  case,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put 
these  boxes  in  a  basket  or  wooden  box  with  a  horse  blanket,  coat, 
hay  or  anything  else  that  would  keep  them  from  being  roughly 
jarred  and  shaken  on  the  way  home. 

Storing. —  As  soon  as  explosives  are  received,  they  should  be 
stored  in  a  dry,  properly  ventilated  building,  safe  from  fire  and 
flying  bullets,  and  far  enough  away  from  dwellings  or  roads  to 
prevent  loss  of  life  should  they  be  accidentally  exploded.  They 
should  be  kept  under  lock  and  key  and  where  children  or  irre- 
sponsible persons  cannot  get  at  them. 

If  large  quantities  are  to  be  stored  for  some  time,  a  dry,  well- 
ventilated,  fire-proof  and  bullet-pvoof  magazine,  located  in  an 
out-of-the-way  place  should  be  provided.  Fuse,  wire,  thawing 
kettles  and  blasting  machines  may  be  stored  in  the  same  building 
with  dynamite,  but  blasting  caps  and  electric  blasting  caps  must 
never  be  stored  in  the  same  building,  because  they  are  more 
easily  exploded  than  djTiamite.  It  would  be  possible  to  explode 
them  accidentally  by  a  hard  shock  or  jar  which  would  not  explode 


446  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMEKS 

dynamite.  If  detonators  were  to  explode  by  themselves,  they 
would  not  be  likely  to  do  much  damage  unless  there  were  a  great 
many  of  them,  but  if  they  were  to  explode  in  the  same  room  with 
dynamite,  they  would  probably  cause  the  dynamite  to  explode. 

Opening  cases. —  When  ready  to  use  the  dynamite,  open  the 
box  or  case  with  a  hardwood  wedge  and  a  mallet.  Never  take 
more  than  the  day's  supply  to  work,  even  in  warm  weather. 
In  cold  weather,  take  only  as  much  as  can  be  kept  thawed  until 
it  is  to  be  used,  unless  there  are  arrangements  for  keeping  it 
thawed  where  the  blasting  is  to  be  done. 

Blasting. —  When  dynamite  or  other  high  explosives  detonate, 
the  small  volume  of  solid  is  converted  immediately  into  a  volume 
of  gas  many  times  greater  than  the  solid.  If  the  explosive  is 
unconiined  there  is  a  great  pressure  exerted  on  the  holding 
material,  which  if  not  too  strong,  will  be  shattered  or  blown 
away. 

The  force  of  the  gases  is  equal  in  all  directions.  If  the  desire 
is  to  blow  a  boulder  or  stump  into  the  air  the  charge  is  placed 
below  the  object.  The  best  shattering  is  obtained  if  the  explosive 
is  placed  in  the  material  to  be  broken  so  that  the  force  is  exerted 
on  it  equally  in  all  directions.  This  is  applicable  in  blasting 
soils  and  blockholing  boulders  or  in  splitting  stumps. 

While  the  gases  exert  an  equal  pressure  in  all  directions,  they 
try  to  escape  by  the  easiest  route  or  along  the  line  of  greatest 
weakness.  If  the  tamping  is  omitted  or  is  insufficient,  the  ten- 
dency will  be  to  blow  out  through  the  bore  hole.  If  a  hole  is 
placed  to  the  side  of  a  stump,  the  tendency  will  be  to  blow  out 
through  the  more  easily  lifted  soil.  The  aim  should  always  be 
to  make  the  easiest  way  out  directly  through  the  material  to  be 
moved  or  shattered. 

Detonation. —  As  has  already  been  explained  dynamite  is  fired 
or  ''detonated"  by  means  of  the  shock  from  a  blasting  cap  or 
electric  blasting  cap,  either  of  which  is  known  as  a  detonator. 

In  order  that  the  detonation  may  be  complete,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  the  full  strength  of  the  explosives  be  developed,  the 
detonator  should  be  placed  inside  the  charge,  with  its  closed  or 
''business  end"  pointed  toward  the  main  bulk  of  the  charge. 

Priming  tvitJi  cap  and  fuse. —  The  act  of  placing  the  detonator 
in  the  charge  is  known  as  "priming"  and  the  cartridge  of  ex- 
plosive with  the  detonator  in  it  is  called  a  "primer." 

Attaching  the  Masting  cap  to  fuse. —  Examine  your  dynamite 
and  see  that  it  is  not  frozen.  Frozen  dynamite  is  hard  and 
rigid,  and  dangerous  to  handle;  when  thawed  it  is  soft.    Next 


USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  FAEM 


447 


examine  your  fuse ;  see  that  it  is  not  stiff  and  brittle ;  if  in  this 
condition,  it  is  advisable  to  warm  slightly,  and  cut  the  required 
length  from  the  roll  mth  a  sharp  knife,  hatchet  or  cap  crimper. 
(The  cut  should  be  made  squarely  across  and  not  diagonally. 
(1,  Fig.  221).  Sometimes  in  the  cutting  the  end  becomes  flattened, 
thereby  making  the  end  of  the  fuse  too  large  to  enter  the  blast- 
ing cap.    When  this  happens,  squeeze  the  end  round  with  index 


1.  Cut  off  a  sufficient  length  of 
fuse. 


2.  Take   one   cap    from    the   box 
with  the  fingers. 


3.  Slip  cap  on  end  of  fuse. 

Fia.  221. — Attaching  a  blasting  cap  to  safety  fuse, 


4.  Crimp  cap  to  fuse  with  cap 
crimper. 


finger  and  thumb.  Open  the  cap  box  and  allow  one  cap  to  slide 
gently  out  to  be  grasped  in  the  fingers  (2,Fig.221) ;  but,  under  no 
circumstances,  pick  a  cap  out  of  the  box  with  a  piece  of  wire, 
stick  or  other  hard  substance.  See  that  there  is  no  grit  or  trash 
in  the  cap.  Slip  the  end  of  the  fuse  gently  into  the  cap  until  it 
is  against  the  charge  in  the  bottom  (3,  Fig. 221 ).  Do  not  twist  the 
fuse  as  the  friction  might  cause  a  premature  explosion.  Then 
take  the  cap  crimper  and  fasten  the  cap  to  the  fuse  with  a  crimp 
near  the  open  encT  of  the  cap  (4,  Fig.  221).  These  operations  are 
not  dangerous,  but  should  be  done  carefully.  If  the  primer  is 
to  be  used  in  a  wet  hole,  smear  a  little  hard  tallow,  soap  or  simi- 
lar substance  around  the  top  of  the  cap  to  insure  against  water 
leaking  in  and  ruining  the  cap  before  it  is  fired.  Never  use  oil 
or  light  grease  as  these  will  penetrate  the  fuse  covering  and 


448  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

ruin  the  powder.  The  cap  is  then  ready  to  be  inserted  into  the 
dynamite. 

There  are  two  reliable  and  satisfactory  ways  of  doing  this: 
In  the  side  and  in  the  end.  Never  lace  the  fuse  through  the  car- 
tridge when  using  either  method. 

Priming  cartridges  in  the  side. —  This  is  done  by  punching  a 
hole  diagonally  into  the  side  of  the  cartridge  (1,  Fig.  222)  near 


1.  Punch  a  hole  in  side  of  cartridge  with 
handle  of  cap  crimper. 


2.  Tie  cord  around  fuse. 


3.  Complete  by  tying  around  car- 
tridge. 


4.  Completed  primer  ready  to 
load. 


Fig.  222. — Priming  a  cartridge  in  the  side   (a  highly  satisfactory  method  for  most 
classes  of  agricultural  blasting). 

the  end  and  pointing  toward  the  center  to  a  sufficient  depth  to 
receive  the  entire  cap.  Insert  the  cap  with  fuse  attached  and 
tie  it  there  with  a  piece  of  cord,  wrapping  it  firmly  around  both 
the  fuse  and  the  cartridge  (2,  3  and  4,  Fig.  222).  The  method  has 
the  advantage  of  leaving  a  good  place  to  place  the  tamping  stick 
in  seating  the  primer  in  the  hole,  but,  for  small  holes,  has  the 


USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  FAEM  449 

disadvantage  of  a  slight  increase  in  size.  This  method  is  the  one 
generally  used  by  agricultural  blasters. 

Cutting  a  dynamite  cartridge  in  half. —  When  small  charges 
are  desired,  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  cartridges  in  half.  This 
should  be  done  with  a  sharp  knife.  Hold  the  cartridge  firmly 
in  one  hand  and  the  knife  in  the  other.  Giving  the  cartridge  a 
rotary  motion,  cut  the  paper  all  the  way  around  and  then  bend 
the  cartridge  slightly,  when  it  will  come  apart  just  where  the 
paper  is  cut.    Never  try  to  cut  a  frozen  cartridge. 

Making  hore  holes. —  The  holes  made  for  loading  explosives 
are  called  ''bore  holes."  These  should  be  prepared  before  the 
primers  are  made.  The  tools  required  for  making  such  holes 
are  few  and  simple,  consisting  either  of  a  sledge  and  pointed 
steel  bar  or  of  soil  augers.  Bore  holes  in  rock,  of  course,  have 
to  be  made  with  rock  drills. 

Loading. —  When  the  cartridge  is  primed  and  the  bore  hole 
made,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  load.  First  try  the  hole  with 
the  tamping  stick  to  see  that  it  is  open  and  will  permit  the  charge 
being  placed  at  the  desired  point. 

When  loading  small  charges,  as  when  only  a  full  or  half  car- 
tridge primer  is  used  for  subsoiling  or  tree  planting,  start  the 
primed  cartridge  into  the  bore  hole  and  press  it  gently  into  place 
with  the  tamping  stick.  See  that  it  is  firmly  seated  in  the  bottom 
of  the  bore  hole. 

In  pressing  a  primer  into  place,  do  not  handle  it  roughly,  as 
it  contains  the  cap  and  is,  therefore,  more  sensitive  and  danger- 
ous than  an  unprimed  cartridge. 

When  the  load  is  to  contain  a  larger  amount  of  dynamite, 
press  the  unprimed  cartridges  into  place  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hole  first,  and  place  the  primer  with  the  cap  pointed  toward  the 
rest  of  the  charge  on  top.  When  the  bore  hole  is  dry,  and  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  charge  concentrated  in  one  place,  it  is  a 
good  practice  to  slit  the  sides  of  the  cartridges  in  two  or  three 
places  and  from  end  to  end  with  a  knife  so  that  the  dynamite 
can  be  compacted  into  a  smaller  space.  The  primer  should  not 
be  split. 

In  all  classes  of  agricultural  blasting,  the  charge  should  be 
pressed  firmly  into  the  bottom  of  the  bore  hole  so  that  no  air 
pockets  are  left,  as  they  weaken  the  action  of  the  explosives. 
When  bore  holes  are  wet,  it  is  not  advisable  to  slit  cartridges. 

For  most  work  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  correct  amount 
of  explosives  by  a  few  test  shots. 

Tamping. —  Closing  the  top  of  the  bore  hole  after  the  charge 


450  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

is  placed  is  for  the  purpose  of  more  closely  confining  the  charge 
to  insure  better  work  and  is  called  ''tamping."  It  should  be 
made  as  tight  as  possible  so  that  the  gases  will  not  blow  out  as 
through  the  muzzle  of  a  gun. 

To  guard  against  danger  of  prematurely  detonating  the 
charge,  the  first  five  to  eight  inches  of  tamping  should  not  be 
packed  with  any  considerable  force,  but  should  be  gently  firmed. 
When  this  amount  of  lightly  tamped  material  covers  the  primer, 
the  rest  of  the  tamping  should  be  made  as  hard  as  possible,  using 
the  wooden  tamping  stick  in  one  hand. 

Moist  clay,  free  from  gravel  and  clods,  makes  good  tamping 
material.  Free  running  sand  or  moist  loam  is  also  good.  In  wet 
work,  when  a  foot  or  more  of  water  covers  the  charge  in  shallow 
holes,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  add  other  tamping,  as  the  water 
will  hold  the  charge  sufficiently  tight.  Loading  and  tamping 
should  be  done  in  such  a  way  that  no  open-air  spaces  are  left. 

When  using  soil  for  tamping,  the  hole  should  be  tamped  full. 
Do  not  allow  sharp  pebbles  or  stones  to  fall  in  the  hole  during 
loading  and  tamping. 

Before  beginning  tamping,  it  is  well  to  measure  the  depth 
from  the  surface  to  the  top  of  the  charge  so  that  if  the  tamping 
must  be  removed  to  get  at  a  misfire,  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
disturbing  the  primer.  It  is  a  good  practice,  especially  where 
heavy  charges  are  used,  to  place  two  inches  of  paper  or  dry 
leaves  immediately  over  the  primer,  so  that  they  can  be  used  as 
a  safety  marker  should  the  tamping  need  to  be  removed  for  any 
cause. 

Firing. —  Exploding  the  charge  is  called  "firing,"  and  can  be 
done  either  by  means  of  caps  and  fuse  or  by  electric  blasting 
caps  with  a  blasting  machine.  When  cap  and  fuse  are  used,  cut 
the  fuse  long  enough  to  reach  about  three  inches  out  of  the  bore 
hole  and  to  enable  you  to  retire  to  a  safe  distance.  Fuse  burns 
on  an  average  of  two  feet  per  minute  and  a  sufficient  length 
should  be  used  to  permit  of  the  blaster  reaching  a  safe  point 
before  the  explosion.  When  using  electric  blasting  caps,  the 
leading  wire  should  be  long  enough  to  enable  the  one  who  oper- 
ates the  blasting  machine  to  be  outside  the  danger  zone.  No 
blast  should  be  fired  until  persons,  animals  and  vehicles  are  well 
out  of  range. 

When  reliable  explosives  and  blasting  supplies  are  used,  and 
the  primers  properly  made  and  placed,  misfires  should  seldom 
occur.  When  using  cap  and  fuse,  and  a  misfire  is  noted,  do  not 
return  to  examine  it  at  once,  as  an  injured  fuse  may  be  burning 


USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  FAEM  451 

slowly  and  delaying  the  shot.  It  is  better  to  wait  until  the  next 
day,  if  possible. 

When  using  electric  blasting  caps,  there  is  no  danger  of  de- 
layed shots  and  less  likelihood  of  misfires.  When  one  does  occur, 
disconnect  the  wires  from  the  blasting  machine,  and  it  will  be 
safe  to  return  immediately  to  the  blast  for  investigation.  Never 
connect  the  -wares  to  the  blasting  machine  until  it  is  time  to  fire, 
and  guard  against  a  careless  person  tampering  with  the  machine 
and  leading  wire  Avhile  loading  shots. 

In  selecting  a  safe  place  to  watch  a  blast,  do  not  get  behind  a 
tree  or  building,  but  stand  in  the  open  at  a  safe  distance  from 
the  blast,  so  that  you  can  see  the  flying  fragments  and  dodge 
any  that  may  come  beyond  reasonable  bounds.  Do  not  have  the 
sun  in  your  eyes,  as  it  may  obscure  flying  missiles. 

Ohtaining  practical  instructions  before  hlasting. — To  do  blast- 
ing work  successfully,  economically  and  safely,  it  is  very  desir- 
able that  the  blaster  should  first  familiarize  himself  A\itli 
approved  methods.  Sufficient  space  cannot  be  spared  here  for  a 
detailed  description  of  best  blasting  practice  and  precautions 
necessary  to  be  observed  in  handling  dynamite.  Our  advice, 
therefore,  is  to  write  to  a  manufacturer  of  explosives  for  an 
instruction  booldet  before  attempting  any  blasting  operation. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

KEROSENE  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES  ON  THE  FARM 
By  Arnold  P.  Yebkes* 

The  tractor. —  The  introduction  of  the  farm  tractor  for  agri- 
cultural operations  marked  just  as  distinct  a  step  in  human 
progress  as  did  the  substitution  of  the  steam  railway  for  the  old 
stage  line,  or  the  development  of  the  automobile  and  motor  truck. 

The  gas  tractor  (so  called  because  it  derives  its  power  from 
an  internal  combustion  engine  burning  a  gasified  fuel,  usually 
gasoline  or  kerosene)  has  entirely  eliminated  the  need  of  horses 
for  practically^  all  kinds  of  work  on  most  types  of  farms. 

While  it  was  designed  primarily  to  do  the  heavy  work  of  plow- 
ing, it  was  only  a  few  years  until  it  had  been  so  perfected  as  to 
enable  it  to  do  all  kinds  of  field  work  for  which  the  horse  is  com- 
monly employed,  and,  in  addition,  it  is  used  extensively  for  belt 
work,  operating  stationary  machines,  for  which  the  horse  never 
was  a  satisfactory  source  of  power. 

Although  it  has  been  proved  in  numerous  cases  throughout 
the  country  that  a  farm  can  be  operated  efficiently  and  economi- 
cally by  mechanical  power  alone,  it  is  more  common  to  find  a  few 
horses  retained  for  odd  jobs  even  on  farms  where  a  tractor  is 
used,  largely  for  the  same  reasons  that  caused  the  old  grain 
cradles  to  be  retained  for  years  after  the  purchase  of  a  reaper. 
In  such  cases,  however,  the  work  of  plowing  is  usually  performed 
almost  entirely  with  the  tractor,  as  are  also  the  disking,  harrow- 
ing and  other  w^ork  of  preparing  the  seed  bed.  Planting  and 
drilling,  being  comparatively^  light  work,  is  in  most  cases  done 
by  horses,  although  the  use  of  the  tractor  for  these  operations  is 
by  no  means  uncommon.  Even  the  work  of  planting  corn,  as  well 
as  cultivating  it  and  other  tilled  crops,  which  is  comparatively 
light  work  for  a  team  of  horses,  can  be  done  with  entire  satis- 
faction by  the  combined  motor  cultivator  and  planter  —  the 
small  brother  of  the  gas  tractor. 

In  haying  and  harvesting  of  all  kinds,  the  tractor  is  frequently 
used  to  pull  one  or  more  mowers,  binders,  corn  harvesters,  etc. 
When  a  header  or  harvester-thresher  is  used,  the  tractor  also 

'  International  Harvester  Company. 

452 


KEKOSENP:  and  gasoline  engines  453 

furnishes  power  to  move  these  machines  over  the  field,  although 
in  some  cases  the  power  to  operate  the  mechanism  is  furnished 
by  an  auxiliary  engine  mounted  on  the  machine. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  tractor  is  used  to  furnish  power  for 
all  kinds  of  belt  work.  Such  operations  on  many  farms  repre- 
sent nearly  fifty  per  cent  of  the  work  for  which  the  tractor  will 
be  used.  The  increasing  use  of  silos  makes  it  necessary  to  have 
power  to  operate  the  ensilage  cutter;  wherever  small  grain  is 
raised  there  is  threshing  to  be  done ;  on  corn  belt  farms  there  is 
always  a  lot  of  corn  to  be  shelled,  while  it  is  not  at  all  infrequent 
to  find  the  tractor  furnishing  power  to  shred  the  fodder  and 
husk  the  ears  at  the  same  time.  Baling  hay  and  straw,  pumping 
water  for  irrigation,  sawing  wood,  grinding  feed,  and  a  dozen 
other  odd  jobs  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  mechanical  horse. 

While  the  gas  tractor  naturally  is  most  satisfactory  and  effi- 
cient when  used  on  level  land  and  on  soil  where  a  good  footing  is 
obtained,  it  is  to-day  being  used  under  nearly  every  farming 
condition  found  in  the  country.  Often  special  attachments  are 
necessary  to  make  it  satisfactory  for  use  under  such  conditions 
as  soft  ground,  among  stones,  etc.,  but  practically  all  these  prob- 
lems have  been  solved  very  satisfactorily. 

While  the  principal  objection  to  the  early  tractors  was  their 
heavy  depreciation,  the  later  machines  have  demonstrated  that 
a  life  at  least  equal  to  that  of  a  horse  may  be  expected  from 
them  when  they  are  given  proper  care  and  attention,  particu- 
larly with  respect  to  lubrication.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
nearly  all  farm  machines  suffer  more  from  lack  of  oil  than  from 
any  other  one  cause.  While  the  bearings  of  most  farm  machines 
work  under  comparatively  light  pressures  and  do  not  transmit 
any  great  amount  of  power,  in  the  case  of  the  tractor  the  reverse 
is  true,  and  proper  lubrication  is  absolutely  essential  to  satis- 
factory operation.  Furthermore,  a  careful  watch  on  practically 
all  bearings  is  a  necessity,  because  a  slight  looseness  here  will 
nearly  always  cause  excessive  damage  if  neglected.  Attention 
to  these  two  items  of  keeping  bearings  properly  tightened  and 
well  lubricated  will  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring  satisfactory 
operation  of  any  tractor. 

The  early  tractors  Avere  naturally  used  largely  with  machines 
which  had  been  designed  for  use  with  horses  since  no  special 
equipment  was  available.  To-day,  however,  there  is  already  a 
rather  complete  list  of  specially  designed  machines  for  use  with 
tractors,  and  this  is  constantly  being  increased.  It  goes  with- 
out saying  that  a  tractor  does  the  most  satisfactory  work  when 


454  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

used  with  machines  which  were  designed  especially  for  the  pur- 
pose. When  plows  and  other  implements  intended  for  use  with 
horses  were  employed  it  was  generally  necessary  to  have  some- 
one to  operate  the  various  levers.  Plows,  disks  and  other  im- 
plements designed  for  use  with  the  tractor,  however,  can  he 
operated  by  the  tractor  driver  without  leaving  his  seat,  and  in 
most  cases  the  work  of  raising  and  lowering,  or  changing  the 
adjustment,  is  done  by  the  power  of  the  tractor  itself. 

The  gas  tractor  is  destined  to  revolutionize  the  agricultural 
industry  within  a  few  years.  With  further  development  of  the 
larger  sizes  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  motor  cultivators,  etc., 
together  with  more  improved  equipment  for  use  with  it,  the  rais- 
ing of  our  staple  crops  in  the  principal  agricultural  areas  will 
undoubtedly  be  carried  on  more  and  more  by  mechanical  power. 

In  the  hands  of  a  competent  operator  the  internal  combustion 
engine  is  an  exceedingly  reliable  source  of  power.  In  inexperi- 
enced hands,  however,  unnecessary  delays  sometimes  occur  due 
to  slight  misadjustments  which  can  be  corrected  easily  and 
quicldy  when  the  causes  of  the  irregular  operation  are  known. 

For  this  reason  the  average  operator  will  generally  find  that 
a  condensed  trouble  chart  showing  the  possible  causes  cf  the 
more  common  forms  of  trouble  is  often  of  considerable  value. 

The  one  given  herewith  is  applicable  to  any  of  the  ordinary 
types  of  gas  engines  such  as  are  used  in  tractors,  automobiles 
and  for  stationary  work.  This  will  cover  more  than  ninety  per 
cent  of  the  troubles  commonly  experienced  with  internal  com- 
bustion engines,  but,  of  course,  does  not  include  some  minor 
points  common  only  to  particular  makes  because  of  details  of 
design. 

This  chart  does  not  cover  starting  troubles  under  a  separate 
heading,  but  nearly  all  the  items  under  the  first  two  heads,  "Loss 
of  Power"  and  ''Misfiring,"  may  also  be  responsible  for  diffi- 
culty in  starting. 

Trouble  with  internal  combustion  engines.—  When  trouble  is 
experienced  with  a  gas  engine,  it  is  usually  a  comparatively  easy 
matter  to  remedy  it  if  the  exact  cause  is  located.  There  are 
nearly  always  several  different  things  which  might  produce  any 
one  of  the  various  troubles  commonly  experienced  in  operating 
an  engine.  Sometimes  an  operator  is  apt  to  jump  to  a  wrong  con- 
clusion in  attempting  to  diagnose  the  trouble.  Frequently  the 
exact  cause  will  not  be  apparent  at  once,  even  to  an  experienced 
operator.  Furthermore,  it  is  difficult  to  keep  in  mind  at  all  times 
the  various  things  which  might  be  producing  a  certain  symptom. 


KEKOSENE  AND  GASOLINE  ENGINES 


455 


By  having  at  hand  a  condensed  chart  showing  most  of  the  pos- 
sible causes  of  the  various  irregularities,  considerable  time  will 
often  be  saved  by  using  it  as  a  reminder.  With  all  the  possible 
causes  in  mind,  a  little  reasoning  and  perhaps  a  few  tests  will 
nearly  always  enable  one  to  reach  the  correct  conclusion.  The 
chart  shown  on  this  page  shows  the  most  common  causes  of 
engine  troubles  and  it  is  hoped  that  gas  engine  operators  may 
find  it  of  value  for  reference.  It  is  suggested  that  it  be  cut  out, 
pasted  on  a  piece  of  cardboard  and  kept  in  a  convenient  place 
for  use  when  needed. 


A  TROUBLE  CHART  FOR   INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES 


Combus 
tion 


Fuel 


CARBON: 

'Results  from  incomplete  com- 
bustion of  fuel  or  lubricat- 
ing oil  ■which  enters  the 
combustion  chamber;  most 
often  the  latter.  Oil  in 
combustion  chamber  is  usu- 
ally due  to  worn  or  poorly 
fitting  piston  rings,  too 
much  oil  in  crank  case,  or 
being  fed  by  oiler. 

Too  rich  a  mixture  or  poor 
carburetion  is  usually  re- 
sponsible for  carbon  forma- 
tion from  unburned  fuel. 
Poor  carburetion  is  often 
due  to  the  use  of  a  lower 
grade  of  fuel  than  the  car- 
buretor can  handle  prop- 
erly. 

LOSS  OF  POWER: 

Spark  occurring  too  late. 

Spark  weak  because  of  partial 
short  circuit  or  battery  be- 
coming exhausted. 

Dirty  spark  plugs. 

Poor  connections. 

Dirty  timer. 

Poor  or  broken  wiring  in  case 
of  magneto. 

Breaker  points  worn,  oily,  or 
out  of  adjustment. 

Commutator  brush  dirty  or 
oily. 

Mixture  too  lean  or  too  rich. 

Supply  pipe  partly  clogged. 

Inlet  valve  not  opening  suf- 
ficiently, due  to  wear. 

Water  in  fuel. 

Leaks  around  intake  mani- 
fold. 


Ignition 


'Overheating  in  cylinder  or 
bearings. 

Gummy,  inferior  or  insuffi- 
cient oil. 

Exhaust  pipe  partially  clog- 
ged. 

Governor  out  of  adjustment. 

Lack    of    compression,    which 

Motor  -^  ^^^  ^^  ^"^  ^^  worn,  stuck, 
or  broken  piston  rings. 

Scored  cylinder  walls. 

Leaks  through  and  around 
head  joints. 

Valves  sticking,  worn,  pitted, 
or  not  seating  properly  be- 
cause of  dirt. 

In  cold  weather  engine  and 
cooling  water  too  cold. 

MISFIRING: 

Weak  batteries. 

Poor  connections. 

Dirty  timer. 

Vibrator  or  breaker  points 
,     .  .  pitted,  dirty  or  poorly  ad- 

Ignition  ^       justed. 

Dirty  or  cracked  plugs,  points 
of  plug  not  properly  spaced. 

Make  and  break  points  not 
touching  properly. 


Mixture  too  lean  or  too  rich. 
Fuel  passage  partly  clogged. 
Water  in  fuel. 


Fuel 


Fuel 


fLack  of  compression. 
Motor      s  Valves  stick  or  not  working 
L     properly. 

EXPLOSIONS  IN  EXHAUST  PIPE:* 
Ignition    flr'-^g^ilar  ignition. 

t_  Poor  spark,  or  very  late  spark. 
Fuel  Mixture  too  lean  or  too  rich. 

*  Often  occurs  just  after  starting,  due  to  first  charges  not  firing  in  cylinder  and 
passing  through  into  exhaust  pipe,  where  burning  gases  from  first  few  explosions 
will  ignite  them. 


456  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


POUNDING: 

Ignition       Spark  too  early. 


Motor 


Red-hot     carbon     deposit     in 

cylinder. 
Loose  bearings. 
Tight  piston,  due  to  lack  of 

oil  or  lack  of  cooling  water. 
Hot  bearings. 
Loose  flywheel. 
Very     loose     piston     (piston 

slap). 


BACKFIRING: 


Ignition 


Fuel 


Motor 


Spark  too  late.  (If  motor 
backfires  and  stops,  spark 
may  be  too  far  advanced). 

Short  circuit  on  primary  wire. 
[_  Wires  to  wrong  plugs. 

rWeak  mixture. 

1^  Occasionally  too  rich  mixture. 

f  Leaky  or  stuck  intake  valve. 
J  Red-hot  carbon  deposits. 
I  Leaky  manifold  or  carburetor 
1^      gasket. 


Insufficient  lubrication. 

Insufficient  cooling  water. 

Circulation    of   cooling   water 
impeded. 
Motor      j  Pump  not  working  properly. 

Heavy  carbon  deposits  in  cyl- 
inder. 

Water   chamber   coated  from 
impure  water. 

IRREGULAR  SPEED: 

r  Loose   connections,   or   partly 
J     •.  •       J       broken  wire. 

I  Vibrator    or    breaker    points 
!__      pitted,   or  poorly  adjusted. 

r  Supply  to   carburetor  irregu- 
Fuel         <^       lar. 

[  Dirt  on  needle  valve. 


r  Governor  gummy,  sticky,  out 
of     adjustment     or     badly 
worn. 
Valves  sticky. 


Motor 


SMOKE: 


OVERHEATING: 

Ignition      Spark  too  late,  or  very  weak. 

Fuel  Mixture  too  rich. 


Black  smoke  in  exhaust  indi- 
cates too  rich  a  mixture. 

Bluish  smoke  indicates  too 
much  lubricating  oil. 

Smoke  from  the  crank  case  or 
open  end  of  cylinder  indi- 
cates leak  past  the  piston. 

Look  for  worn  rings,  rings 
stuck  in  grooves,  or  scoring 
on  cylinder  walls. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 

THE  CARE  OF  TOOLS  ON  THE  FARM 
By  Edgab  W.  Cooley' 

The  annual  loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  from  care- 
less use  of  farm  machinery  and  the  neglect  of  it  when  not  in 
use  foots  up  a  gigantic  sum.  One  of  the  most  important  build- 
ings on  any  farm  is  the  tool-house.  It  is  possible  to  store  farm 
machinery  promiscuously  under  shed,  on  the  barn  floor,  in  the 
barn  basement,  and  other  places,  but  the  farmer  who  depends 
on  thus  storing  his  machinery  usually  leaves  it  out  of  doors  a 
good  share  of  the  time.  There  should  be  a  tool  house  with  a 
place  for  each  machine,  and  this  tool-house  should  be  located  so 
that  it  is  easily  accessible,  thus  making  it  as  easy  as  possible  to 
get  the  machinery  under  cover  when  not  in  use.  It  is  no  small 
item  to  bring  machinery  in  from  the  field,  many  times  w^hen  it 
should  be  brought  in,  and  anything  done  to  encourage  this  good 
practice  is  worth  while  —  hence,  the  value  of  an  easily  accessible 
tool-house.  When  the  location  of  fields  will  permit,  it  is  a  good 
farm  rule  to  bring  the  machine  to  the  tool-house  every  evening 
after  the  day's  work,  and  in  some  instances  it  would  be  wise  to 
bring  the  tool  in  at  the  noon  hour,  especially  if  weather  is  threat- 
ening and  there  is  an  uncertainty  as  to  whether  the  tool  will  be 
used  in  the  afternoon. 

Such  tools  as  the  grain  binder,  the  grain  drill,  and  the  corn- 
planter  should  never  be  left  in  the  fields  or  in  the  open  over 
night  unless  covered  with  a  waterproof  canvas.  Too  often  it  is 
the  practice  of  the  farmer  to  bring  his  grain  binder  or  wheat 
drill  to  the  tool  shed,  unhitch  from  it  and  leave  it  out  two  or 
three  days  before  running  it  into  the  tool-house.  It  takes  no 
more  time  to  run  the  tool  under  cover  at  the  time  it  is  unhitched 
than  it  does  a  few  days  later.  Not  only  does  great  loss  of  time 
and  machinery  result  from  the  neglect  of  large  tools  like  the 
grain  binder  and  grain  drill  but  also  smaller  and  less  compli- 
cated tools,  such  as  the  walking  plow,  peg  tooth  harrow,  and 
cultivator  depreciate  rapidly  in  service-rendering  value  from 
being  exposed.     The  cost  of  time  getting  the  plow  to  scour  or 

*  Expert  on  farm  tools  and  implements. 

457 


458  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

brighten  after  being  left  in  tbe  field  through  a  rainy  spell  would 
pay  several  times  for  bringing  the  plow  to  the  tool  shed  and 
oiling  the  mold  board  while  it  is  yet  bright.  Without  going  into 
detail  we  offer  the  following  suggestions  for  the  care  of  farm 
machinery : 

Go  over  each  machine  at  least  two  Aveeks  before  time  to  use  it, 
examine  every  part  thoroughly  and  either  replace  it  or  else  order 
the  part  and  have  it  ready  in  case  a  break  occurs  during  the  busy 
season.  It  is  unbusinesslike  to  take  a  chance  on  any  Aveak  parts 
lasting  through  the  year.  It  is  good  insurance  to  have  the  repair 
part  ready  in  case  the  break  does  occur  and  in  case  it  does  not 
occur  it  does  no  harm  to  have  the  part  on  hand  for  next  year. 

Give  the  machine  a  complete  overhauling  and  have  it  ready 
when  it  is  needed.  This  overhauling  can  be  done  on  days  when 
work  is  not  pressing. 

Use  a  good  grade  of  oil  and  keep  the  machine  thoroughly  oiled. 
Many  machines  have  gone  to  early  ruin  from  lack  of  complete 
lubrication.  Remember  that  as  long  as  there  is  a  film  of  oil 
between  the  working  parts  there  will  be  no  wear  on  the  metal. 
Study  the  machine,  locate  the  parts  that  work  rapidly  and  oil 
these  several  times  a  day.  Some  of  the  slower  working  parts, 
such  as  the  bull  wheel  on  the  binder,  needs  oiling  only  once  or 
twice  each  day.  Cover  the  machine  at  night,  or,  better  still,  back 
it  into  the  tool-house.  Any  machine,  the  wearing  parts  of  which 
are  apt  to  rust  during  two  or  three  days'  idleness  such  as  the 
disks  of  the  disk  harrow  or  disk  drill,  the  hoes  of  the  drill  or 
the  mold  board  of  a  plow  should  be  oiled  Avhen  the  machine 
is  unhitched.  This  is  easily  done  by  using  a  can  of  axle 
grease  and  a  painter's  brush.  A  handy  man  can  oil  the  mold 
board  of  a  plow  in  one  minute.  A  good  plower  Avill  have  a  small 
box  of  grease  and  a  brush  always  with  him.  The  time  that  it 
takes  to  oil  the  disks  of  a  harrow  or  drill  is  small  indeed  com- 
pared with  the  time  and  energy  spent  in  getting  them  bright 
sometimes. 

In  the  fall,  after  the  farm  machines  have  served  their  purpose 
for  the  year,  take  a  little  pains  in  getting  them  located  for  the 
winter.  It  is  well  to  put  blocks  under  the  plow  to  hold  it  up  off 
the  floor  in  case  it  is  a  concrete  or  gravel  or  earthen  floor.  This 
helps  prevent  rust.  Be  careful  that  the  machinery  such  as  the 
grain  binder,  hayrake,  mowing  machine  and  grain  drill  are  not 
stored  on  a  "twist."  Careless  storing  of  machinery  sometimes 
bends  some  part  out  of  shape,  resulting  in  unusual  wear  on  some 
parts  when  the  machine  is  put  to  use. 


THE  CARE  OF  TOOLS  ON  THE  FARM 


459 


Make  the  tool-house  as  near  weatherproof  as  possible.  Build- 
ing paper  and  strips  or  laths  are  cheaper  than  machinery.  Do 
not  have  any  leaks  in  the  roof  and  do  not  leave  any  cracks 
through  which  rain  or  snow  can  blow.  The  fact  that  a  machine 
can  be  left  out  of  doors  all  winter  and  still  run  the  next  year  is 
no  argument  against  making  the  tool-house  water-proof. 

The  satisfaction  of  having  tools  that  will  operate  smoothly 
and  efficiently  is  pay  enough  for  giving  them  care  even  if  there 


Fig.  223. 


A  corn  harvester  left  out  in  the  snow  to  rust  and  decay, 
great  loss  to  the  farmer  and  should  be  avoided. 


This  is  a 


were  no  money  or  cost  involved.  The  suggestive  list  of  tools 
necessary  for  operating  a  one  hundred  and  fifty-acre  farm  in  Cen- 
tral New  York  and  the  estimated  first  cost  will  help  to  bring  home 
to  us  the  importance  of  caring  for  this  investment  in  farm  equip- 
ment. The  man  who  invests  such  a  sum  of  money  in  farming 
equipments  can  well  afford  to  borrow  money  to  build  a  tool- 
house  to  store  them  in.  The  only  reason  for  the  short  life  of 
good  machinery  on  the  average  farm  is  carelessness  and  neglect. 


460  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Machineey  to  Equip  a  Farm  of  150  Acres  in  Central  New  York 


One  fourteen-inch  walking  plow. 
One  hillside  plow. 

One  disk  harrow,  four-horse  size,  10x16. 
One  peg-tooth  harrow,  %xy8,  thirty  teeth. 
One  two-row  corn  planter. 
One  one-row  corn  cultivator. 
One  one-horse  cultivator. 
One  grain    drill    with    fertilizer    attach- 
ment, two-horse  size. 
One  farm  wagon. 

Other  Machines  Which  Could  be  Used  to  Advantage  Provided  Farmer  is  Able 
TO  Install  Them  at  the  Start 


One  grain  binder,  six  feet,  with  bundle 

carrier. 
One  corn  binder,  without  elevator,  with 

bundle  carrier. 
One  manure  spreader.  No.  8  Endless. 
One  side-delivery  hay  rake. 
One  mowing  machine,  five-foot  cut. 
One  tedder,  six-fork. 
One  lime  sower. 


One  silage  cutter,  right  size  to  be  oper- 
ated with  tractor. 
One  potato  planter. 


One  S-16  tractor,  with  hitches  for  work- 
ing machinery,  listed  above. 
One  breaking  plow  for  tractor. 
One  potato  digger. 

Hay-hoisting  equipment  might  also  be  included, 
would  depend  upon  the  size  and  extent  of  equipment. 


The  cost 


Fig.  224. —  A  poorly  kept  farm,  showing  a  lack  of  interest  and  pour  business 
judgment. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 

THE  CARE  OF  THE  HARNESS* 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  when  harness  and  leather  equip- 
ment is  constantly  exposed  to  the  varying  conditions  of  weather 
and  because  of  its  value  and  its  rapid  deterioration  under  neg- 
lect, conscientious  care  is  necessary  to  insure  its  long  life  and 
serviceability. 

For  the  proper  care  of  all  leather  equipment,  two  agents  are 
necessary  —  one  for  cleaning  and  one  for  oiling.  The  cleaning 
agent  is  castile  soap ;  the  oiling  agents  are  Neatsf oot  oil  or  har- 
ness soap.  The  castile  soap  is  a  commercial  article  containing 
about  three  per  cent  of  lye,  which  is  necessary  to  give  it  the 
required  cleaning  power.  Its  action,  however,  is  merely  to  free 
the  leather  from  dirt,  sweat  and  other  matter  which  accumulates 
in  the  surface  pores  or  the  leather. 

Neatsfoot  oil  has  been  used  for  many  years,  and  from  experi- 
ence has  been  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  for  oiling  the 
leather ;  it  penetrates  the  pores  and  saturates  the  fibres,  making 
them  pliable  and  elastic.  Dry  leather  is  brittle ;  leather  oiled  too 
much  will  soil  everything  it  comes  in  contact  with,  and  also  it 
accmnulates  dirt.  The  condition  to  be  desired  is  just  enough  oil 
in  the  leather  to  make  it  soft  and  pliable  Avithout  so  much  that  it 
will  exude.  All  animal  oils  and  fats,  and  most  vegetable  oils 
may  be  used  with  good  results.  Mineral  oils  should  never  be 
used  for  this  purpose. 

In  washing  with  an  alkaline  soap,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent 
the  removal  of  the  surface  oil.  This  tends  to  leave  the  surface 
hard  and  dry  and  liable  to  crack.  It  is  difficult  to  replace  this 
surface  oil  without  applying  an  excess,  so  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  have  a  different  kind  of  soap.  There  are  various 
kinds  of  saddle  or  harness  soaps,  most  of  which  contain  more  or 
less  neutral  oil  which  replaces  the  surface  oil  removed  in 
washing. 

Cleaning  with  saddle  soap. —  All  leather  equipment  must  first 
be  wiped  off  daily  or  as  often  as  used,  with  a  dampened  cloth 
to  remove  the  mud,  dust,  etc.  It  is  never  cleaned  by  holding  it 
in  water  or  under  a  hydrant.     Daily  wiping  Avill  do  much  to 

*  Courtesy  of  the  Dakota-Farmer. 

461 


462  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMEES 

maintain  the  appearance  of  harness,  but  it  is  insufficient  of  itself 
to  properly  preserve  it.  At  intervals  of  from  one  to  four  weeks, 
depending  upon  circumstances,  used  harness  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned.  First,  the  harness  is  taken  apart,  all  buckles, 
loops,  straps,  etc.,  removed  wherever  possible.  Then  all  surface 
dust  and  mud  is  wiped  off  with  a  damp  (not  wet)  sponge  or  cloth. 
Then  a  lather  is  made  by  moistening  the  clean  sponge  in  clean 
water,  squeezing  it  out  as  nearly  dry  as  possible,  and  rubbing 
vigorously  upon  the  castile  soap.  When  a  thick,  creamy  lather 
is  obtained,  all  pieces  are  cleaned. 

After  cleaning  the  sponge  again,  make  a  thick  lather  as 
before,  but  this  time  with  saddle  soap ;  go  over  each  piece  again, 
working  the  lather  well  into  it,  remembering  that  its  action  is 
that  of  a  dressing.  After  the  leather  is  partially  dry,  it  should 
be  rubbed  with  a  soft  cloth  to  give  it  a  healthy  appearance.  If 
the  leather  is  soft  and  pliable,  nothing  further  is  required. 
Occasionally,  however,  it  is  found  necessary  to  apply  oil. 
During  the  first  few  months  of  use,  a  new  set  of  harness  should 
be  given  at  least  two  applications  of  oil  each  month.  Frequent, 
light  applications  are  of  more  value  than  infrequent,  heavy  ones. 
Before  using  new  equipment,  it  should  be  given  a  light 
application. 

How  to  oil  leather. —  The  quantity  of  oil  used  should  rarely 
exceed  an  ounce  or  two  tablespoonfuls  for  each  set  of  harness. 
Oil  should  be  applied  to  the  flesh  side  where  practicable,  when 
the  leather  is  clean  and  still  damp,  after  washing.  It  should  be 
applied  with  an  oiled  rag  or  cotton  waste  by  long,  light,  quick 
strokes,  with  the  endeavor  to  make  a  light,  even  distribution. 
After  oiling,  leather  should  be  allowed  to  stand  twenty-four 
hours,  if  possible,  in  a  warm,  dry  place,  then  rubbed  with  a  dry 
cloth  to  remove  unabsorbed  oil. 

Oil  is  applied  on  the  flesh  side  because  it  penetrates  more 
uniformly,  and  when  the  leather  is  dry  it  will  absorb  oil  like 
blotting  paper,  preventing  proper  distribution.  An  additional 
reason  for  consistent  cleaning  and  oiling  lies  in  the  fact  that 
practically  all  leather  contains  at  least  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent 
of  sulphuric  acid,  acquired  as  a  normal  product  of  tannage. 
This  acid,  which,  if  excessive,  will  in  time  rot  the  leather,  is 
neutralized  by  the  alkali  of  the  castile  soap,  and  to  a  less  degree 
by  the  oil. 

A  few  cautions  to  be  observed  are :  To  keep  the  leather  clean 
and  off  the  ground ;  keep  pliable  by  light  applications  of  oil ;  use 
only  materials  recognized  as  good ;  dry  all  leather  in  the  shade, 


THE  CAKE  OF  THE  HAENESS  463 

never  in  the  sun  or  close  to  a  stove,  radiator  or  furnace ;  never 
use  shoe  polish  to  brighten  the  surface  of  harness ;  store  leather 
in  a  cool,  dry  place  where  there  is  no  artificial  heat. 

To  clean  such  equipment  as  bits  and  other  metal  parts  of  the 
harness,  no  more  force  should  be  used  than  is  necessary  to 
remove  such  dirt,  etc.,  as  may  be  collected.  A  piece  of  wood  will 
remove  the  softened  dirt  and  mud,  but  no  emery  paper  or  other 
abrasive  should  be  used.  There  are  many  good  polishing  liquids! 
on  the  market  to  brighten  or  polish  buckles,  etc. 

A  harness  repair  outfit. —  Although  it  is  commonly  considered 
to  be  within  the  province  of  the  saddlers,  and  consequently  is 
neglected  by  the  farmer,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  latter  should 
not  make  many  of  his  o^\m  repairs.  There  is,  of  course,  such 
rej)air  work  as  stuffing  the  collar,  etc.,  which  requires  a 
trained  man. 

The  outfit. —  Some  of  the  following  tools  may  not  be  absolutely 
essential,  but  they  comprise  a  fairly  complete  outfit : 

One  pair  clamps.  One  saddler's  hammer. 

One  pair  pliers,  Xo.  3.  One  edge  tool,  No.  2. 

One  dozen  awls,  assorted.  Two  tongue  pimches,  Xos.  35  and  37. 

One  dozen  awl-handles.  Four  round  punches,  N"os.  3,  4,  5  and  6. 

One  dozen  awl-collar  needles,  assorted.      One  fine  saddler's  shoulder-crease. 

Two  packets  needles,  Xos.  2  and  4.  One  single-hand  crease. 

One  saddler's  compass.  One  saddler's  palm. 

One  round  knife. 

Different  materials  which  are  required  in  renovating  harness : 

Pitch,  per  pound.  Bridle  leather,  per  side. 

Resin.  Harness  leather,  per  pound. 

Wax.  Collar-check,  per  yard. 

Best  brown  hemp,  Xo.  2,  per  pound.  Bro^^^l  serge. 
Tacks,  per  packet. 

A  small  leather  apron  about  four  by  twelve  inches,  is  required. 
This  is  suspended  from  the  waist  and  hangs  over  the  right  thigh. 
A  small  S-hook,  for  holding  the  hemp  whilst  making  the  thread, 
is  also  needed.  Also  a  suitable  bench  should  be  provided  and 
placed  where  there  is  good  light. 

Requirements  of  good  stitching. —  To  obtain  good  stitching  it 
is  necessary  that : 

1.  Thread  of  a  kind  and  strength  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  work  be  selected. 

2.  The  thread  be  smooth,  well-twisted,  and  well-waxed. 

3.  The  stitches  be  all  draA\ni  equally  tight,  and  made  as  firm  as  possible,  without 

cutting  the  leather. 

4.  The  needles  be  used  in  the  right  way. 


464  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMEBS 

5.  The  right  kinds  of  awls  be  selected  and  correctly  used. 

6.  The  stitches  be  made  towards  the  operator. 

7.  The  work  be  closely  and  firmly  held  in  the  clamps. 

8.  The  stitches  be  of  equal  length. 

9.  The  holes  be  of  equal  size  and  angle. 

Always  have  tools  sharp,  clean  and  in  their  proper  places. 
Neatness  of  equipment  means  efficiency  in  work.* 

*  New  South  Wales  Department  of  Agriculture. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

A  PRACTICAL  FARM  REPAIR  SKOP> 

By  J.   W.   DiCKERSON 

Every  progressive  farmer  should  have  a  "Bad  "Weather  Work 
Shop'*  on  his  farm,  well  lighted,  having  good  ventilation,  and 
equipped  with  up-to-date  machinery  and  tools. 

It  is  a  time  and  money  saver  to  overhaul  and  repair  the  farm 
equipment.  All  machines  should  be  kept  properly  adjusted  and 
properly  cared  for  so  that  when  the  call  comes  for  its  use,  it  will 
be  in  running  order. 

Points  worth  remembering. —  Machines,  when  not  in  use, 
should  be  brought  under  shelter  and  all  bearings  carefully  oiled 
with  heavy  lubricating  oil,  and  all  bright  parts  painted  with  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  whiting  and  cup  grease,  which  can 
easily  be  removed  with  gasoline  or  kerosene ;  loose  nuts  tight- 
ened ;  badly  worn  chain  links  repaired ;  bent  rods  straightened ; 
excessive  wear  taken  up;  all  parts  needing  it  given  two  good 
coats  of  the  paint  suited  to  the  wood  or  metal  surface;  disk 
blades,  etc.,  sharpened;  harrow  teeth  and  cultivator  shovels 
pointed ;  scythes  and  sickles  ground ;  many  other  things  may  be 
done  also  to  put  the  machines  and  equipment  in  condition  to 
work  at  maximum  efficiency  at  an  hour's  notice. 

Along  with  this  careful  overhauling  of  his  machinery  the 
owner  also  sees  that  his  auxiliary  equipment  —  whiffletrees, 
singletrees,  clevises,  log-chains,  weed-hooks,  rolling  colters,  lad- 
ders, hayracks,  shovel  boards,  wagonbeds,  sideboards,  tip-top 
boards,  hay  forks,  pulley  block  and  so  on  —  is  fully  repaired  and 
painted. 

The  repair  shop  is  of  value  to  the  housewife,  for  here  she  may 
have  chair  rounds  or  rockers  tightened ;  table  drawers  repaired ; 
the  cupboard  door  that  has  swollen  fitted;  the  screen  door 
repaired;  the  doors  that  sag  repaired;  butcher  knives  sharp- 
ened, and  kitchen  equipment  repaired.  She  also  may  have  many 
home-made  contrivances  that  she  never  before  dared  to  hope  for. 

Always  buy  good  tools  for  the  shop  and  keep  them  in  good 
condition.  Keep  on  hand  nails  and  screws  of  different  sizes.  To 
prevent  nails  and  screws  from  rusting  dip  in  boiled  linseed  oil. 

*  Courtesy  of  the  Country  Gentleman. 

465 


466  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


For  general  repair  work  on  machines,  driving  in  pins,  and 
such  operations,  the  machinist's  ball-peen  hammer  of  medium 
weight  is  the  most  satisfactory,  while  for  anvil  work  the  heavier 
hand  hanuuer  is  preferable.  The  heavy  sledge  comes  in  handy 
for  heavy  hammering  and  cutting  on  the  anvil  and  is  serviceable 
in  a  hundred  other  ways  around  the  farm.  One  of  the  next 
additions  will  be  a  small  half-pound  hammer  for  riveting  and 
harness  work. 

The  hardy  is  set  in  the  square  hole  in  the  anvil  and  is  very 
convenient  for  light  cutting,  when  the  farmer  must  hold  his 

work  and  use  the 
hammer  himself.  For 
heavier  work,  when 
the  hired  man  uses  the 
sledge,  the  hot  and 
cold  cuts  are  used. 

The  most  expensive 
part  of  his  tool  equip- 
ment   is    the    set    of 
screw-cut  cutting  taps 
and  dies,  but  it  is  also 
very  valuable.  Renew- 
ing a  stripped  or  dam- 
aged thread  on  a  bolt 
or    nut    is    a    simple 
operation     and     need 
keep   the   piece    of 
equipment  out  of  service  but  a  very  short  time.    A  supply  of 
bolts,  nuts,  washers,  screws,  rods,  bars,  shafting  and  tubing 
may  often  be  secured  by  tearing  apart  old  machinery. 
Soldering  outfit  pays. —  Three  important  things  to  remember; 

1.  Have  surface  to  be  repaired  bright  and  clean. 

2.  Use  plenty  of  zinc  chlorid  flux. 

3.  Have  soldering  iron  just  hot  enough  to  make  the  sal 
ammoniac  smoke  freely. 

An  outfit  for  harness  repairing  and  shoe  mending  is  worth 
considering. 

For  light,  hasty  repair  work  the  light  riveting  machine  using 
hollow  steel  rivets  is  quite  satisfactory,  while  the  belt  punch  and 
copper  rivets  take  care  of  heavier  work.  The  iron  repair-stand 
with  the  iron  lasts  is  very  convenient  for  rough  half-sole  work 
on  work  shoes  where  looks  are  not  very  important. 


Fig.  225. —  Floor  plan  of  the  repair  shop. 


A  PRACTICAL  FARM  REPAIR  SHOP  467 

Pipe  wrenches,  dies,  vise  and  cutter  should  be  on  hand  if  the 
buildings  and  barns  are  piped  for  water. 

The  gasoline  engine  is  of  the  horizontal,  hopper-cooled  type, 
as  this  is  usually  the  cheapest  and  most  convenient  in  the  four- 
horse-power  size. 

The  engine  is  fastened  to  the  floor  by  means  of  a  two-by-four- 
inch  crosspiece  at  each  end,  held  by  a  five-eights-inch  lag-screw 


Fig.  226. —  Perspective  drawing  showing  tlie  equipment 

long  enough  to  extend  about  three  and  a  half  inches  into  the  con- 
crete. The  engine  was  set  as  shown,  partly  to  get  cylinder-head, 
valves  and  carburetor  next  to  the  wall,  Avhere  there  is  plenty  of 
light  for  adjustments,  and  partly  to  have  the  main  drive  belt  so 
that  the  upper  side  is  the  slack  or  loose  side  and  thus  secure  a 
better  grip  on  each  pulley. 

The  post-drill  faces  away  from  the  main  shaft,  so  that  belt 
coming  from  behind  will  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  operator,  and 
has  clear  space  enough  that  holes  may  be  bored  in  a  binder 
cutter-bar  or  other  long  piece.  It  is  fastened  firmly  to  a  six-by- 
six-inch  wooden  beam  set  into  the  concrete  at  the  bottom  and 
bolted  to  a  floor  joist  at  the  top,  and  is  equipped  Avith  both  hand 
crank  and  belt  drive  with  fast  and  loose  pulley. 


468  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


It  is  found  best  to  have  the  main  shafting  run  near  the  center 
of  the  shop,  as  this  makes  it  available  for  running  machines  at 
either  side.  One  twelve-foot  section  of  one-and-a-half-inch  cold- 
rolled  steel  shafting  is  sufficient  for  the  machines  shown  and  for 
driving  any  temporary  machines  that  may  be  desired,  such  as  a 

disk  sharpener.  For  this  reason 
the  shaft  is  extended  farther  over 
the  repair  floor  than  w^ould  other- 
wise be  necessary.  Three  eight- 
inch,  four-point,  adjustable,  wick- 
oiling  drop-hangers  give  plenty  of 
on  the  lower  side  of  the  two-by- 


•  Method 


fastening 


rigidity,  and  when  placed 
eight-inch  joists  give  plenty  of  clearance  for  any  pulleys  that 
are  likely  to  be  used.  Short  hangers  are  preferred,  as  they  cut 
down  the  amount  of  vibration. 

One  countershaft  is  required  for  the  emery  wheel,  partly  to 
secure  the  desired  change  in  speed,  partly  to  make  a  more  con- 
venient method  of  throwing  in  and  out  of  operation,  and  partly 
to  bring  the  belt  down  out  of  way  of  the  operator. 

LIST  OF  EQUIPMENTS  FOR  REPAIR  SHOP 
No  1  —  Cabpenteb 


pound. 


One  bit-stock  or  brace. 

Eight  auger  bits,  3/16,  ^4,  5/16,  %,  7/16, 

V-2,  %,  %  inch. 
One  claw  hammer,  1^4 
One  carpenter's  square. 
One  try-square,  8-inch. 
One  marking  gauge. 
One  ripsaw,  26-inch. 
One  handsaw,  26-inch. 
One  keyhole  saw. 
Nails  and  screws. 


One  jack  plane,  14-inch. 

One  smoothing  plane,  8-inch. 

Three  firmer  chisels,  y^,  y-2,  %  inch. 

One  level,  25-inch. 

One  draw  knife,  12-inch. 

One  dividers,  8-inch. 

One  wood  rasp,  14-inch. 

One  screw  driver,  10-inch. 

One  screw  driver,  6-inch. 

One  wood  bench  and  vise. 


No.  2  —  Blacksmith 


IVa- 


-inch. 


One  blacksmith  sledge,  10-pound. 
One  anvil  hand  hammer,  3-pound. 
One  machinist's  ball  peen  hammer, 

pound. 
Two  cold  chisels,  %  and  %-inch. 
Five  punches,  1/16,  Vs,  3/16,  14, 
One  center  punch. 
One  adjustable  hacksaw  frame. 
One  dozen  hacksaw  blades. 
Twelve  twist  drills,  1/16,  3/32,  Vs,  5/32, 

3/16,  7/32,  14,  5/16,  %,  7/16,  Va,  %- 

inch. 
Six  assorted  files  with  handles. 


One  screw  cutting  outfit  consisting  of 
two  stocks  and  tap-wrench,  and  7  sizes 
taps  and  adjustable  dies,  ^^,  5/16,  %, 
7/16,  %,  %;  s/^-inch. 

One  straight  hardy,  1-inch. 

One  cold  cut,  1%-inch. 

One  hot  cut,  1%-inch. 

One  straight  lip  tongs. 

Two  bolt  tongs,  %  and  %-inch. 

One  forge  with  hand  blower. 

One  anvil,  steel-faced,  100-pound. 

One  iron  bench  and  vise. 


No.  3 — Soldering  Tools  and  Materials 


One  tin  snips. 

One  square-pointed  soldering  copper,  1%. 

pound. 
One  bar  half-and-half  solder. 


Large  crystal  sal-ammoniac. 
Commercially  pure  hydrochloric  acid. 
Powdered  rosin. 


A  PRACTICAL  FARM  REPAIR  SHOP 


469 


List  of  Equipments  foe  Repaib  Shop  —  Continued 
No.  4  —  Habxess  Repair  Tools  and 

JiATERIALS 


One  hand  belt  punch,  4  sizes. 

One  hollow  drive  punch. 

One  belt  awl. 

One  coil  belt-lace  wire. 

One  bunch  cut  laces,  i4-inch. 


One  box  copper  rivets  and  burrs,  as- 
sorted. 

One  lever  riveting  machine  and  box  hol- 
low steel  rivets,  needles,  wax,  thread. 

Iron  repair  stand  with  three  lasts. 


Xo.    5  —  INIlSCELLANEOUS    REPAIR    TOOLS 


One  monkey  wrench,  12-inoh. 

One  monkey  wrench,  8-inch. 

Five  double-end  S  wrenches. 

One  Button's  wire  cutting  plier,  10-inch. 

One  pipe-threading  outfit,  with  pipe- 
stock  and  6  adjustable  dies  for  14,  %, 
V2,  %,  1,  11/4 -inch  pipe. 

One  single-wheel  pipe  cutter. 

Two  Stillaon  pipe  wrenches,  10  and  14- 
inch. 

One  open-hinge  pipe  vise. 


One  pinch-point  steel  crowbar. 

One  trowel  for  concrete  work,  lO-inch. 

One  pointing  trowel. 

One  sidewalk  edger. 

One  sidewalk  groover. 

One  putty  knife. 

One  glass  cutter. 

One  melting  ladle  for  Babbitting. 

Two  and  one-half  pounds  Babbitt  metal. 

Assorted  paint  brushes. 


No.  6  —  Bill  of  Materials  for  House 


Eight  joists  2"x8"xl6'  No.  1 

yellow  pine 131 

Twenty-two  rafters  2"x4"x 

14'  No.  1  yellow  pine.  .  . .  205 
Two  sills  2"x6"xl6'  No.   1 

yellow  pine 32 

One    sill    2"x6"xl8'   No.    1 

yellow  pine 18 

Two  plates  2"x4"xl6'  No.  1 

yellow  pine 22 

Two  plates  2"x4"xl8'  No.  1 

yellow  pine 24 

Forty  studs  2"x4"xl2'  No.  1 

yellow  pine 320  ^ 


1 752  ft. 


Flooring,  360  feet. 

Sheathing,  400  feet. 

Five  and  one-half  inch  drop  siding,  1,180 

feet. 
Good  cedar  shingles,  5,500. 
Nine  barn  sash  windows,  24x42  inches. 
Hardware  and  paper. 
Paint,  1,000  square  feet,  about  5  gallons. 
Concrete  for  foundation,  51  cubic  feet. 
Concrete  floor,  285  square  feet. 


No.  7  —  Machinery 


REVOLUTIONS 


Gasoline  engine,  4  horse  power, 
with  6"x4"  pulley 425 

Emery    wheel,     12-inch,    with 

floor  stand  and  4  wheels.  .  .  .      1800 

Grindstone,      2i^"x28",      with 

belt  pulley  and  treadle 70 


REVOLUTIONS 

PER 

MINUTE 

Post  drill  press 84 

Countershaft  for  emery  wheel.        770 

Main  shafting ' 210 

Pulleys  and  hangers. 
Belting. 


CHAPTEK  XXXI 

HOW  TO  PROLONG  THE  LIFE  OF  FENCE  POSTS» 

The  chief  requirement  in  a  wood  for  a  fence  post  is  durability. 
For  this  reason  cedar,  white  oak,  and  locust  have  long  been  the 
princiiDal  trees  used.  Although  formerly  plentiful  over  large 
portions  of  the  country,  these  trees  are  now  in  many  sections 
becoming  too  scarce  and  high-priced  to  be  used  for  this  purpose. 
Substitutes,  either  in  the  form  of  iron,  reenf orced  concrete,  or  of 
the  less  durable  woods,  will  soon  have  to  take  their  place.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  iron  or  reenf  orced  concrete  will  ever  come  into 
coimnon  use  for  fence  posts,  because  such  posts  are  too  expen- 
sive. Nearly  every  wood  lot,  however,  contains  trees  that  are 
not  now  utilized  to  any  extent  for  fence  posts,  because  their 
woods  are  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  soil,  such  as  maple, 
birch,  beech,  cottonwood,  Avillow,  hickory,  elm,  etc.  Fortunately, 
such  woods  can  be  made  durable  at  small  expense,  by  a  preserva- 
tive treatment  and  can  be  utilized  in  the  place  of  the  more  dur- 
able woods.  Posts  that  ordinarily  last  but  three  or  four  years 
in  the  ground,  can  be  made  to  last  over  twenty  years  by  preserv- 
ing the  wood  from  decay. 

Simple  methods  of  prolonging^  the  life  of  fence  posts. —  Any 
method  by  which  wood  can  be  kept  dry  or  that  will  tend  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  the  fungus  plant  (causing  decay),  will 
prolong  the  life  of  fence  posts.  Piling  stones,  ashes,  or  gravel 
about  the  base,  or  setting  the  post  in  cement,  or  concrete,  will 
help  to  drain  away  the  moisture  and  will  prevent  the  growth  of 
weeds,  which  keep  the  air  from  circulating  freely  around  the 
post.  Thoroughly  seasoned  posts  will  last  much  longer  than 
those  that  are  set  green.  Good  results  have  been  obtained  by 
charring  the  ends  of  the  posts  over  an  open  fire.  The  posts  must 
be  thoroughly  seasoned  to  prevent  splitting  or  checking,  and  the 
charring  must  extend  at  least  six  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  when  the  post  is  set.  Painting  the  surface  of  the  post,  or 
coating  with  some  preservative  substance  like  tar,  petroleum  or 
creosote,  will  help  to  keep  out  the  moisture  and  will  also  tend  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  fungi.     To  be  effective,  this  "brush 

'  By  permission  of  Missouri  Agri.  Exp.  Sta. 

470 


HOW  TO  PROLONG  THE  LIFE  OF  FENCE  POSTS    471 

treatment, "  as  it  is  called,  should  only  be  applied  to  thoroughly 
seasoned  posts.  Where  creosote  or  a  similar  preservative  is 
used,  it  should  be  applied  hot  and  at  least  two  coats  given.  One 
of  the  defects  of  a  brush,  or  surface  treatment,  is  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  get  the  preservative  into  all  the  cracks  and  checks.  This 
can  be  overcome  by  dipping  the  posts  in  the  hot  preservative. 
At  best,  surface  coatings  are  not  durable.  They  are  easily 
broken  or  worn  off,  exposing  the  wood  to  fungi  and  admitting 
moisture  to  the  interior  of  the  post. 

Hoiv  to  preserve  fence  posts  hy  the  use  of  creosote. —  The  most 
effective  method  of  preserving  fence  posts  is  to  thoroughly 
impregnate  the  outer  layer  of  the  wood  with  some  preservative 
substance  that  will  poison  the  wood  and  deprive  the  fungus  plant 
of  its  food.  Many  substances  have  been  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  cheapest  and  most  effective  is  creosote,  or  dead  oil  of 
coal  tar,  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas. 
It  is  not  only  poisonous  to  the  fungus  plant,  but,  being  an  oil,  it 
also  tends  to  exclude  moisture  from  the  wood.  Most  of  the  high- 
priced,  patented  preservatives  have  this  substance  as  their  base. 

The  treatment  is  best  carried  out  by  the  so-called  "open  tank 
method."  Thoroughly  seasoned  posts  are  heated  for  several 
hours  in  hot  creosote,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  down  in  cold 
creosote.  When  the  posts  are  heated  in  hot  creosote,  the  high 
temperature  causes  the  air  and  water  in  the  wood  to  expand,  so 
that  a  portion  of  this  air  and  Avater  is  forced  out.  When  the 
posts  are  then  placed  in  cold  creosote,  the  air  and  water  left  in 
the  wood  contract,  forming  a  partial  vacuum;  and  the  creosote 
is  forced  into  the  wood  by  atmospheric  pressure,  to  take  the  place 
of  the  air  and  water  that  have  been  forced  out.  This  forms  a 
shell  of  creosoted  wood  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  two  inches 
in  thickness  around  the  post,  that  effectively  excludes  moisture 
and  prevents  the  entrance  of  fungi. 

Hoiv  to  apply  the  treatment. —  A\niere  a  large  number  of  posts 
are  to  be  treated,  it  can  be  done  more  quickly  and  economically 
by  using  two  tanks.  The  posts  are  heated  for  several  hours  in 
boiling  hot  creosote  in  the  heating  tank,  and  then  immediately 
transferred  to  the  second  tank  to  cool  for  about  an  equal  length 
of  time,  in  cold  creosote.  But  for  treating  a  few  posts  for  farm 
use,  the  single  tank  method  is  advised.  In  this  case,  the  posts 
are  allowed  to  cool  down  in  the  tank  in  which  they  were  heated. 
As  good  results  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  one  tank  as 
with  two. 

The  simplest  form  of  treating  tank  would  consist  of  an  iron 


472  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

tank  four  feet  high  and  about  three  feet  in  diameter,  set  up  over 
a  brick  fireplace  with  a  stovepipe  smoke  stack.  Such  an  outfit 
will  cost  about  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars.  Often  an  old  iron  boiler 
can  be  found  that  will  answer  the  purpose.  A  galvanized  iron 
tank  has  usually  too  thin  a  bottom  to  set  up  over  an  open  fire. 
Such  a  tank,  however,  can  be  utilized  and  heated  by  means  of  a 
three-inch  U  tube.  In  this  case,  since  the  creosote  is  very  inflam- 
able,  it  should  be  shielded  from  the  open  fire.  In  either  case,  a 
false  bottom  should  be  Dlaced  in  the  tank  for  the  posts  to  rest 
upon. 

Preparatio7i  of  the  posts  for  treatment. —  The  posts  should  be 
thoroughly  seasoned  before  treatment,  as  the  presence  of  much 
water  in  the  wood  tends  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  creosote. 
Ordinarily,  posts  loosely  piled  will  season  sufficiently  in  from 
five  to  seven  weeks.  All  the  bark  should  be  removed,  especially 
the  papery  inner  bark,  as  it  prevents  the  creosote  from  entering 
the  wood.  Usually  only  about  forty  inches  of  the  lower  end  of 
the  post  is  treated.  This  will  bring  the  treated  portion  of  the 
post  six  to  eight  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  ground  when  the 
posts  are  set.  It  is  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  the 
fastest  decay  takes  place.  Unless  the  wood  is  very  perishable,  it 
is  not  usual  to  treat  the  tops  of  the  posts,  but  it  can  be  easily 
done  by  inverting  the  post  in  the  tank  after  one  end  has  been 
treated.  Merely  dipping  the  tops  in  the  hot  creosote  will  have  a 
favorable  effect.  When  the  tops  are  not  to  be  treated,  it  is  well 
to  cut  them  oif  obliquely,  so  as  to  shed  the  rain. 

Where  posts  are  to  be  given  a  preservative  treatment,  it  is 
possible  to  select  a  much  smaller  post  than  is  generally  used. 
Large  posts  are  selected  for  fence  posts,  because  they  will  last 
longer  than  small  ones  before  decay  sets  in.  A  fence  post  of  five 
inches  average  diameter  is  large  enough  and  strong  enough  for 
the  line  posts,  and  is  the  best  size  for  the  preservative  treatment. 
Round  posts  are  preferable  to  split  posts,  because  hardwood, 
except  in  the  cases  of  cottonwood  and  sycamore,  does  not  absorb 
the  creosote  readily. 

Carrymg  out  the  treatment  in  a  single  tank. —  Creosote  which 
at  ordinary  temperature  is  not  a  liquid,  should  be  heated  in  the 
tank  to  about  220  degrees  F.,  or  just  above  the  boiling  point. 
A  higher  temperature  will  tend  to  weaken  the  wood  and  a 
large  amount  of  the  creosote  will  be  evaporated.  The  tank 
should  then  be  filled  with  fence  posts.  Sufficient  creosote  should 
be  used  to  cover  at  least  the  lower  forty  inches  of  the  posts. 
After  heating  for  a  couple  of  hours,  the  fire  should  be  withdrawn 


HOW  TO  PKOLONG  THE  LIFE  OF  FENCE  POSTS    473 

and  the  posts  left  in  the  creosote  until  they  have  cooled  down. 
The  posts  will  then  be  treated. 

Two  runs  of  posts  can  easily  be  treated  in  a  day  on  the  farm 
without  interfering  A\dth  the  regular  w^ork.  The  tank  can  be 
filled  with  posts  in  the  morning  and  a  fire  built  to  last  about  two 
hours  before  burning  out.  The  posts  after  being  heated,  will 
cool  down  during  the  day,  and  by  night  will  be  treated.  A  new 
run  of  posts  can  be  put  in,  heated  as  before  for  two  hours,  and 
allowed  to  cool  down  over  night.  In  cool  weather  the  tank  wnll 
cool  down  fast  enough  so  that  it  will  be  possible  to  start  a  new 
run  at  noon.  In  this  way,  three  runs  of  fifteen  to  twenty  posts 
each  can  be  treated  without  much  effort  each  day. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

ROADS* 

The  grade  is  the  most  important  factor  to  be  considered  in  the 
location  of  roads.  Steep  grades  should  always  be  avoided,  if 
possible.  They  become  covered  at  times  with  coating  of  ice  or 
slippery  soil,  making  them  very  difficult  to  ascend  with  loaded 
vehicles  as  well  as  dangerous  to  descend.  They  allow  water  to 
rush  down  at  such  a  rate  as  to  wash  great  gaps  alongside  or  to 
carry  the  surfacing  material  away.  As  the  grade  increases  in 
steepness  the  load  has  to  be  diminished  in  proportion  or  more 
horses  or  power  attached.  If  a  horse  can  pull  on  a  level  one 
thousand  pounds,  on  a  rise  of: 

1  foot  in —  POUNDS 

100  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 900 

50  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 810 

44  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 750 

40  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 720 

30  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 640 

25  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 540 

>  24  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 500 

20  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 400 

10  feet  with  the  same  effort  he  draws 250 

Drainage. —  An  essential  feature  of  a  good  road  is  good  drain- 
age, and  the  principles  of  good  drainage  remain  substantially 
the  same  whether  the  road  be  constructed  of  earth,  gravel,  shells, 
stones,  or  asphalt.  The  first  demand  of  good  drainage  is  to 
attend  to  the  shape  of  road  surface.  This  must  be  ''crowned," 
or  rounded  up  toward  the  center,  so  that  there  may  be  a  fall  from 
the  center  to  the  sides,  thus  compelling  the  water  to  flow  rapidly 
from  the  surface  into  the  gutters  which  should  be  constructed 
on  one  or  both  sides,  and  from  there  in  turn  be  discharged  into 
larger  and  more  open  channels.  Furthermore,  it  is  necessary 
that  no  water  be  allowed  to  flow  across  a  roadway;  culverts, 
tile,  stone,  or  box  drains  should  be  provided  for  that  purpose. 

In  addition  to  being  well  covered  and  drained,  the  surface 
should  be  kept  as  smooth  as  possible;  that  is,  free  from  ruts, 
wheel  tracks,  holes,  or  hollows.  When  water  is  allowed  to  stand 
on  a  road  the  holes  and  ruts  rapidly  increase  in  number  and 
size ;  wagon  after  wagon  sinks  deeper  and  deeper,  imtil  the  road 
finally  becomes  utterly  bad. 

*  Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page,  and  Company. 

474 


ROADS  475 

The  wearing  surface  of  a  road  must  be  in  effect  a  roof;  tliat  is, 
the  section  in  the  middle  should  be  the  highest  part  and  the 
traveled  roadway  should  be  made  as  impervious  to  water  as 
possible,  so  that  it  will  flow  freely  and  quickly  into  the  gutters 
or  ditches  alongside.  Where  the  road  is  constructed  on  a  grade 
or  hill  the  slope  from  the  center  to  the  sides  should  be  slightly 
steeper  than  that  on  the  level  road.  Every  wheel  track  on  an 
inclined  roadway  becomes  a  channel  for  carrying  down  the 
water,  and  unless  the  curvature  is  sufficient  these  tracks  are 
quickly  deepened  into  water  courses  which  cut  into  and  some- 
times destroy  the  best  improved  road. 

Water  breaks  and  side  ditches. —  In  order  to  prevent  the 
washing  out  of  earth  roads  on  hills  it  sometimes  becomes  neces- 
sary to  construct  water  breaks;  that  is,  broad  shallow  ditches 
arranged  so  as  to  catch  the  surface  water  and  carry  it  each  way 
into  the  side  ditches.  Such  ditches  retard  traffic  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  often  result  in  overturning  vehicles;  consequently 
they  should  never  be  used  until  all  other  means  have  failed  to 
cause  the  water  to  flow  into  the  side  channels;  neither  should 
they  be  allowed  to  cross  the  entire  width  of  the  road  diagonally 
but  should  be  constructed  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  V.  This 
arrangement  permits  teams  following  the  middle  of  the  road  to 
cross  the  ditch  squarely  and  thus  avoid  the  danger  of  overturn- 
ing. These  ditches  should  not  be  deeper  than  are  absolutely 
necessary  to  throw  the  water  off  the  surface,  and  the  part  in  the 
center  should  be  the  shallowest. 

Where  the  road  is  built  on  a  grade  some  provision  should  be 
made  to  prevent  the  wash  of  the  gutters  into  great,  deep  gullies. 
This  can  be  done  by  paving  the  bottom  and  sides  of  the  gutters 
with  brick,  river  rocks,  or  field  stones.  In  order  to  make  the 
flow  in  such  side  ditches  as  small  as  possible,  it  is  advisable  to 
construct  outlets  into  the  adjacent  fields  or  to  lay  underground 
pipes  or  tile  drains  with  openings  into  the  ditches  at  frequent 
intervals. 

Subdrainage. —  In  order  to  have  a  good  road  it  is  just  as  neces- 
sary that  water  should  not  be  allowed  to  attack  the  substructure 
from  below  as  that  it  should  not  be  permitted  to  percolate 
through  it  from  above.  Under  drains  are  not  expensive.  On 
the  contrary,  they  are  cheap  and  easily  made,  and  if  made  in  a 
substantial  way,  and  according  to  the  rules  of  common  sense,  a 
good  under  drain  will  last  for  ages.  Slim  fagots  of  wood  bound 
together  and  laid  lengthwise  at  the  bottom  of  a  carefully  graded 
drain  ditch  will  answer  fairly  well  if  stone  or  drain  tile  can  not 


476  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

be  had^  and  will  be  of  infinite  benefit  to  a  dirt  road  laid  on 
springy  soils. 

Subdrains  should  be  carefully  graded  with  a  level  at  the 
bottom  to  a  depth  of  about  four  feet,  and  should  have  a  continu- 
ous fall  throughout  their  entire  length  of  at  least  six  inches  for 
each  one  hundred  feet  in  length.  If  tile  drains  cannot  be  had, 
large,  flat  stones  may  be  carefully  placed  so  as  to  form  a  clear 
open  passage  at  the  bottom  for  the  flow  of  the  water.  The  ditch 
should  then  be  half-filled  with  rough  field  stones,  and  on  these  a 
layer  of  smaller  stones  or  gravel,  and  a  layer  of  sod,  hay,  gravel, 
cinders,  or  straw,  or,  if  none  of  these  can  be  had,  of  soil.  If  field 
stones  or  drain  tile  cannot  be  procured,  satisfactory  results  may 
be  attained  by  the  use  of  logs  and  brush. 

Gravel  roads. —  Where  beds  of  good  gravel  are  available  this 
is  the  simplest,  cheapest,  and  most  effective  method  of  improv- 
ing country  roads.  Inferior  qualities  of  gravel  can  sometimes 
be  used  for  foundations;  but  where  it  becomes  necessary  to 
employ  such  material  even  for  that  purpose  it  is  well  to  mix  just 
enough  sandy  or  clayey  loam  to  bind  it  firmly  together.  For  the 
wearing  surface  or  the  top  layer  the  pebbles  should,  if  possible, 
be  comparatively  clean,  hard,  angular,  and  tough,  so  that  they 
will  readily  consolidate  and  will  not  be  easily  pulverized  by  the 
impact  of  traffic  into  dust  and  mud.  They  should  be  coarse, 
varying  in  size  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  one-half. 

Blue  gravel  mid  hank  gravel. —  Where  blue  gravel  or  hardpan 
and  clean  bank  gravel  are  procurable,  a  good  road  may  be  made 
by  mixing  the  two  together.  Pit  gravel  or  gravel  dug  from  the 
earth  as  a  rule  contains  too  much  earthy  matter.  This  may, 
however,  be  removed  by  sifting. 

The  best  gravel  for  road-building  stands  perpendicular  in  the 
bank;  that  is,  when  the  pit  has  been  opened  up  the  remainder 
stands  compact  and  firm  and  cannot  be  dislodged  except  by  use 
of  the  pick,  and  when  it  gives  way  falls  in  great  chunks  or  solid 
masses. 

Stone  roads. —  The  practice  of  using  too  soft,  too  brittle,  or 
rotten  material  on  roads  cannot  be  too  severely  condemned. 
Some  people  seem  to  think  that  if  a  stone  quarries  easily,  breaks 
easily,  and  packs  readily,  it  is  the  very  best  stone  for  road  build- 
ing. This  practice,  together  with  that  of  placing  the  material 
on  unimproved  foundations  and  leaving  it  thus  for  traffic  to 
consolidate,  has  done  a  great  deal  to  destroy  the  confidence  of 
many  people  in  stone  roads.  There  is  no  reason  in  the  world 
why  a  road  should  not  last  for  ages  if  it  is  built  of  good  material 


ROADS  477 

and  kept  in  proper  repair.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  money  spent 
is  more  than  wasted.  It  is  more  economical,  as  a  rule,  to  bring 
good  materials  a  long  distance  by  rail  or  water  than  to  employ 
inferior  ones  procured  close  at  hand. 

The  durability  of  roads  depends  largely  upon  the  power  of  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  composed  to  resist  those  natural  and 
artificial  forces  which  are  constantly  acting  to  destroy  them. 
The  fragments  of  which  they  are  constructed  are  liable  to  be 
attacked  in  cold  climate  by  frost,  and  in  all  climates  by  water 
and  wind.  If  composed  of  stone  or  gravel,  the  particles  are 
constantly  grinding  against  each  other  and  being  exposed  to  the 
impact  of  the  tires  of  vehicles  and  the  feet  of  animals.  Atmos- 
pheric agencies  are  also  at  work  decomposing  and  disintegrating 
the  material.  It  is  obviously  necessary,  therefore,  that  great 
care  be  exercised  in  selecting  for  the  surfacing  of  roads  those 
stones  which  are  less  liable  to  be  destroyed  or  decomposed  by 
these  physical,  dynamical  and  chemical  forces. 

Useful  stones  for  road-huilding. —  Siliceous  materials,  those 
composed  of  flint  or  quartz,  although  hard,  are  brittle  and  defi- 
cient in  toughness.  Granite  is  not  desirable  because  it  is 
composed  of  three  materials  of  different  natures,  viz.,  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  mica,  the  first  of  which  is  brittle,  the  second  liable 
to  decompose  rapidly,  and  the  third  laminable  or  of  a  scaly  or 
layerlike  nature.  Some  granites  which  contain  hornblende 
instead  of  feldspar  are  desirable.  The  darker  the  variety  the 
better.  Gneiss,  which  is  composed  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mica, 
more  or  less  distinctly  slatey,  is  inferior  to  granite.  Mica-slate 
stones  are  altogether  useless.  The  agrillaceous  slates  or  clayey 
slates  make  a  smooth  surface,  but  one  which  is  easily  destroyed 
when  wet.  The  sandstones  are  utterly  useless  for  road  building. 
The  tougher  limestones  are  very  good,  but  the  softer  ones, 
though  they  bind  and  make  a  smooth  surface  very  quickly,  are 
too  weak  for  heavy  loads ;  they  wear,  wash,  and  blow  away  very 
rapidly. 

The  materials  employed  for  surfacing  roads  should  be  both 
hard  and  tough,  and  should  possess  by  all  means  cementing  and 
vecementing  qualities.  For  the  Southern  States,  where  there  are 
no  frosts  to  contend  with,  the  best  qualities  of  limestone  are 
considered  quite  satisfactory  so  far  as  the  cementing  and  rece- 
menting  qualities  are  concerned,  but  in  most  cases  roads  built  of 
this  class  of  material  do  not  stand  the  wear  and  tear  of  traffic 
like  those  built  of  trap  rock,  and  when  exposed  to  the  severe 
Northern  winters  such  material  disintegrates  very  rapidly.    In 


478  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

fact,  trap  rock,  ''nigger  heads,"  technically  known  as  diabase, 
and  diorites,  are  considered  by  most  road  engineers  of  long 
experience  to  be  the  very  best  stones  for  road  building. 

Macadam  construction. —  The  macadam  road  consists  of  a 
mass  of  angular  fragments  of  rock  deposited  usually  in  layers 
upon  the  roadbed  or  prepared  foundation  and  consolidated  to  a 
smooth,  hard  surface  produced  by  the  passage  of  vehicles  or  by 
use  of  a  road  roller.  The  thickness  of  this  crust  varies  with  the 
soil,  the  nature  of  the  stone  used,  and  the  amount  of  traffic  which 
the  road  is  expected  to  have.  It  should  be  so  thick  that  the 
greatest  load  will  not  affect  the  foundation.  The  weight  usually 
comes  upon  a  very  small  part  of  the  surface,  but  is  spread  over 
a  large  area  of  the  foundation,  and  the  thicker  the  crust  the  more 
uniformly  will  the  load  be  distributed  over  the  foundation. 

Telford  construction. —  The  character  of  the  foundation 
should  never  take  the  place  of  proper  drainage.  The  advisabil- 
ity of  underground  or  subdrainage  should  always  be  carefully 
considered  where  the  road  is  liable  to  be  attacked  from  beneath 
by  water.  In  most  cases  good  subdrains  will  so  dry  the  founda- 
tion out  that  the  macadam  construction  can  be  resorted  to. 
Sometimes,  however,  thorough  drainage  is  difficult  or  doubtful, 
and  in  such  cases  it  is  desirable  to  adopt  some  heavy  construction 
like  the  telford;  and,  furthermore,  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
perfectly  solid  and  reliable  roadbeds  in  many  places  is  often 
overcome  by  the  use  of  this  system. 

In  making  a  telford  road  the  surface  for  the  foundation  is 
prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  for  a  macadam  road.  A  layer 
of  broken  stone  is  then  placed  on  the  roadbed  from  five  to  eight 
inches  in  depth,  depending  upon  the  thickness  to  be  given  the 
finished  road.  As  a  rule  this  foundation  should  form  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  thickness  of  the  material.  The  stone  used  for 
the  first  layer  may  vary  in  thickness  from  two  to  four  inches 
and  in  length  from  eight  to  twelve  inches.  The  thickness  of  the 
upper  edges  of  the  stones  should  not  exceed  four  inches.  They 
are  set  by  hand  on  their  broadest  edges  lengthwise  across  the 
road,  breaking  joints  as  much  as  possible.  All  projecting  points 
are  then  broken  off  and  the  interstices  or  cracks  filled  with  stone 
chips,  and  the  whole  structure  wedged  and  consolidated  into  a 
solid  and  complete  pavement.  Upon  this  pavement  layers  of 
broken  stones  are  spread  and  treated  as  for  a  macadam  road. 

Dirt  roads  on  the  farm. — An  ideal,  hard  surface  road  is  a  good 
thing  to  have.  But  most  of  our  roads  for  a  long  time  to  come 
will  be  dirt  highways.    This  being  the  case,  we  may  spend  time 


ROADS  479 

to  advantage  in  learning  what  dirt  roads  are  and  how  to 
maintain  them. 

A  dirt  road  should  be  a  slightly  rounding  surface  of  earth 
which  has  been  packed  by  traffic  and  other  means  to  make  it 
hard  and  smooth.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  make  a  dirt  road, 
but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  maintain  a  dirt  road,  for  this  requires 
patience  and  persistence.  We  are  too  apt  to  want  to  fmish  a 
thing  and  be  done  with  it.  We  are  never  done  with  a  dirt  road, 
if  we  are  to  maintain  it  properly.  But  this  does  not  mean  that 
it  is  a  hard  task.  A  little  intelligence  and  attention  occasionally 
at  the  right  time,  is  all  that  is  required.  The  only  tool  necessary 
is  the  road  drag,  a  rake  and  a  shovel. 

The  dressing  of  the  road  by  the  drag  maintains  the  contour. 
With  wear,  the  road  tends  to  flatten,  and  this  gives  a  surface 
which  will  hold  water.  The  road  must  be  well  drained,  for  Avher- 
ever  water  stands  upon  it,  it  becomes  softened  and  ruts  deeply 
under  traffic. 

The  right  use  of  the  road  drag  keeps  the  road  in  the  form  of 
a  watershed.  The  drag  should  be  used  very  soon  after  each  rain 
which  soaks  the  roadway  sufficiently  so  that  ruts  develop.  The 
time  to  use  it  is  while  the  soil  is  still  plastic,  but  does  not  stick 
to  the  drag. 

The  following  instructions  come  from  the  experience  of  men 
who  made  a  success  in  dragging  roads : 

1.  Drive  the  team  at  a  walk. 

2.  Ride  on  the  drag  to  give  it  weight. 

3.  Begin  on  one  side  of  the  road  and  return  on  the  other. 

4.  Drag  the  road  as  soon  after  every  rain  as  possible,  but  not 

while  the  earth  w^ill  stick  to  the  drag.    There  is  a  time 
when  it  is  just  right. 

5.  Do  not  drag  a  dry  road,  as  the  additional  dust  created  will 

either  blow  away  or  form  mud  with  the  first  rain. 

6.  The  length  of  the  chain  regulates  the  hold  taken  on  the  earth. 

7.  Making  the  chain  longer  is  equivalent  to  putting  weight  on 

the  drag.    If  the  drag  is  too  heavy,  shorten  the  chain. 

8.  To  move  much  earth  or  cut  small  weeds,  hitch  close  to  the 

ditch  end  of  a  drag,  and  stand  as  near  as  possible  to  that 
end  of  the  front  plank  or  cutting  edge. 

9.  On  a  soft  spot,  stand  on  the  front  end  of  the  drag. 

10.  If  the  drag  clogs  with  straw,  sod  or  mud,  put  your  weight 

as  far  as  possible  on  the  end  away  from  the  ditch. 

11.  To  drop  earth  in  a  low  place,  step  as  quickly  as  possible 

from  the  ditch  end  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  drag. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

BENEFITS  OF  THE  FEDEEAL  FARM  LOAX  SYSTEM 
By  James  B.  Norman,  M.A.^ 

The  Federal  Farm  Loan  Act  went  into  effect  on  July  17, 1916, 
the  day  it  was  signed  by  the  President.  The  primary  object  of 
the  law  was  to  provide  capital  for  agricultural  development.  This 
money  was  to  be  loaned  to  farmers  for  productive  purposes  at 
a  low  and  uniform  rate  of  interest.  In  order  to  make  these  loans 
two  kinds  of  land  banks  were  authorized.  One  is  known  as 
Federal  land  banks  and  the  other  as  Joint  Stock  land  banks. 
These  banks  make  first  mortgage  loans  on  farms  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

Improvement  of  farm  mortgage  conditions. —  One  of  the  first 
benefits  derived  from  this  Act  is  the  improvement  of  the  terms 
and  conditions  of  loans.  Before  the  Act  was  passed  farmers 
had  great  difficulty  in  procuring  credit  except  under  very  harsh 
terms  and  conditions.  "WHien  a  farmer  mortgaged  his  farm,  it 
was  usually  at  a  high  rate  of  interest,  with  commission  charges 
of  at  least  one  or  two  per  cent,  the  mortgage  was  generally  made 
to  run  not  longer  than  five  years,  and  it  was  expected  that  the 
mortgage  would  be  paid  in  full  when  due. 

These  were  burdensome  and  dangerous  conditions.  The 
farmer  had  to  struggle  hard  during  the  period  of  his  loan  to  pay 
the  interest  on  his  debt  and  keep  his  household  running.  If  he 
were  unable  to  pay  off  his  mortgage  when  it  became  due  and  he 
was  fortunate  enough  to  get  it  renewed,  it  was  only  by  the  pay- 
ment of  an  additional  commission  which  increased  his  burden. 
But  if  he  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  modern  Shylock,  he  was 
under  constant  dread  of  losing  his  farm  and  all  he  possessed. 
In  those  days  borrowing  money  on  mortgage  by  the  farmer  was 
a  gamble  with  financial  slavery  or  bankruptcy  and  A\dth  the 
prospect  that  the  farmer  would  play  a  losing  game. 

All  these  conditions  have  been  changed  by  the  new  Federal 
farm  loan  system.  The  interest  rate  cannot  exceed  six  per  cent 
and  is  uniform  all  over  the  United  States ;  the  farmer  who  bor- 
rows has  no  commission  to  pay;  the  charges  for  appraising  a 

'  Assistant  Secretary,  Federal  Farm  Loan  Board. 

480 


BENEFITS  OF  FEDERAL  FARM  LOAN  SYSTEM    481 

farm,  searching  and  recording  a  title,  making  out  papers,  and 
other  incidental  costs  of  procuring  a  mortgage  loan  are  only 
what  they  actually  cost  the  land  bank  making  the  loan;  and, 
lastly,  the  farmer  has  an  easy  method  of  repaying  his  loan  by 
means  of  small  annual  or  semi-annual  installments.  In  general, 
these  are  the  most  important  benefits  to  farmers  who  mortgage 
their  farms  under  the  Federal  farm  loan  system. 

The  method  of  repaying  a  loan  is  unique.  It  is  called 
*' amortization'^ — that  is,  the  debt  is  paid  off  a  little  each  year. 
This  plan  works  wonders  for  the  farmer  who  is  in  debt.  It 
relieves  his  mind,  for  the  fear  of  foreclosure  does  not  haunt  him ; 
and  it  lightens  the  drain  on  his  purse,  for  it  reduces  the  amount 
of  interest  he  has  to  pay.  This  benefit  alone  is  worth  all  the  cost 
of  establishing  this  new  system  of  farm  mortgage  credit. 

Three  methods  of  borrowing  money. —  The  law  provides  three 
ways  of  enabling  a  farmer  to  get  a  loan : 

1.  If  a  farmer  wants  to  borrow  money  from  a  Federal  land 
bank,  he  must  do  so  either  by  joining  a  national  farm  loan  asso- 
ciation or  through  an  agent.  These  associations  are  organized 
with  not  less  than  ten  members  and  they  operate  in  a  limited 
territory  designated  by  their  charter  which  is  granted  by  the 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Board.  The  limits  of  loans  that  can  be 
borrowed  through  an  association  are  from  $100  to  $10,000.  Up 
to  October  1,  1919,  there  had  been  3,953  national  farm  loan 
associations  organized  in  the  United  States  and  thev  had  made 
loans  to  100,412  farmers  to  the  amount  of  $261,175,346. 

2.  In  some  localities  where  associations  are  not  organized,  the 
Federal  land  banks  may  appoint  agents  through  which  loans  can 
be  made  to  individual  farmers.  An  agent  must  be  a  State- 
chartered  bank,  trust  company,  mortgage  company,  or  savings 
bank.  Up  to  the  present  time  only  the  Federal  Land  Bank  of 
St.  Paul  has  made  loans  to  farmers  through  agents.  These 
agents  make  loans  in  the  district  which  includes  the  States  of 
Michigan,  AYisconsin,  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota. 

3.  If  a  farmer  prefers  he  may  procure  a  loan  of  a  joint-stock 
land  bank.  LTp  to  October  1,  1919,  this  class  of  land  bank  had 
made  loans  to  farmers  to  the  amount  of  $41,787,360.  The  limits 
of  loans  made  by  these  banks  range  from  $100  to  $50,000. 

There  are  twelve  Federal  land  banks  and  twenty-seven  joint- 
stock  land  banks  in  operation  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States.  At  the  rate  these  banks  are  making  loans  it  will  not  be 
many  years  before  their  benefits  will  be  extended  to  farmers  all 
over  this  country. 


482  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

A  farmer  who  borrows  through  an  agent  or  an  association 
pays  five  and  one-half  per  cent  interest,  but  he  has  to  subscribe 
for  stock  in  the  Federal  land  bank  to  the  amount  of  five  per  cent 
of  his  loan.  It  is  expected,  however,  that  this  stock  will  draw 
dividends  at  six  per  cent,  or  one-half  per  cent  more  than  he  pays 
out  as  interest.  This  is  the  result  of  cooperation,  for  the  national 
farm  loan  associations  and  the  Federal  land  banks  form  the 
cooperative  part  of  this  system.  Some  of  the  Federal  land  banks 
have  already  paid  dividends  to  their  stockholders,  and  others 
will  soon  be  in  financial  condition  to  do  so. 

But  a  farmer  who  borrows  of  a  joint-stock  land  bank  pays  six 
per  cent  interest.  He  does  not,  however,  have  to  subscribe  for 
stock,  but  receives  the  entire  amount  of  his  loan.  On  the  whole, 
therefore,  the  benefits  derived  from  borrowing  of  either  kind  of 
land  bank  are  about  the  same,  for  both  are  under  strict  Govern- 
ment supervision  and  make  long-time  loans,  ranging  from  five 
to  forty  years,  on  the  amortization  plan  of  repayment.  Nearly 
all  the  land  banks  now  require  an  annual  amortizement  of  about 
one  per  cent  of  the  loan,  which  will  repay  it  in  about  thirty-five 
years. 

Benefits  to  rural  communities. —  But  the  benefits  of  the  Fed- 
eral farm  loan  system  are  not  confined  to  farmers.  The  Act 
provides  that  loans  may  be  expended  for  various  productive 
purposes,  including  the  purchase  of  equipment,  the  making  of 
improvements,  and  the  construction  of  buildings.  This  means, 
as  a  rule,  that  every  borrower  has  cash  to  expend  at  country 
stores  for  lumber,  cement,  wire  for  fencing,  tile  for  drainage, 
lime,  implements,  machinery,  improved  seed,  and  a  hundred 
other  things  which  a  farmer  needs  to  make  his  farm  more  pro- 
ductive. In  each  case  the  country  merchant  has  a  larger  volume 
of  business  and  gets  paid  in  cash.  Thus  the  farm  loan  act  is 
serving  rural  communities  by  sowing  its  benefits  broadcast 
among  merchants  and  the  social  life  of  such  communities  has 
risen  thereby  to  a  higher  plane. 

And  what  is  true  of  merchants  is  true  also  of  rural  bankers. 
If  a  farmer  spends  his  larger  income  at  his  country  store,  the 
merchant  has  more  business  to  transact  at  his  local  bank,  and 
the  latter  does  a  larger  volume  of  business.  If  a  farmer  has  a 
surplus,  he  is  able  to  run  a  savings  or  checking  account  at  the 
bank.  These  are  results  actually  achieved  by  this  system.  Local 
country  banks  are  reaping  the  benefits  not  only  when  the  funds 
fif st  reach  the  national  farm  loan  associations,  but  also  will  con- 


BENEFITS  OF  FEDERAL  FARM  LOAN  SYSTEM    483 

tinue  to  profit  thereby  so  long  as  the  system  brings  increased 
prosperity  to  the  farmers  who  use  it. 

Reduces  the  high  cost  of  living. —  But,  lastly,  the  farm  loan 
system  may  be  expected  to  reduce  the  high  cost  of  living,  since 
it  encourages  agricultural  development  by  making  loans  at  a  Ioav 
rate  of  interest  and  on  easy  terms  of  repayment.  This  means 
better  livestock,  more  modern  buildings,  improved  machinery, 
more  fertilizers,  and  better  seeds.  The  results  have  been  larger 
crops  and  larger  incomes  to  borrowers.  When  the  full  effects 
of  the  system  have  been  felt  in  a  few  years,  higher  grades  and 
larger  quantities  of  farm  products  will  reach  the  consmner's 
door  at  cheaper  prices  than  at  present. 

The  credit  furnished  farmers  under  the  conditions  named 
above  should  certainly  reduce  the  price  of  farm  products.  For 
since  farmers  can  produce  more  goods  with  less  labor  and  at  a 
less  cost,  because  their  business  has  the  use  of  capital  at  a  lower 
cost,  they  can  sell  their  produce  cheaper  than  formerly  and  still 
make  greater  profits.  AVhile  this  will  mean  no  less  profit  to  mid- 
dlemen, it  ought  to  mean  a  lowering  of  the  cost  of  living  in  cities. 
In  this  way  producers,  distributors  and  consumers  of  farm  prod- 
ucts will  be  benefited. 

The  Federal  farm  loan  system,  therefore,  has  a  broad  field  of 
service.  Its  benefits  are  by  no  means  confined  to  farmers  or 
rural  communities,  but  will  extend  into  every  home  in  the  land. 
During  the  two-and-a-half  years  of  its  existence  the  system  has 
met  with  wonderful  success  and  it  now  has  the  loyal  support  of 
all  those  who  have  their  country's  Avelfare  at  heart. 

Farmers  who  are  interested  in  this  helpful  system  of  farm 
mortgage  credit  should  write  for  free  circulars  to  the  Federal 
Farm  Loan  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  FARM  RECORD 
By  Hiram  T.  Scovill,  A.B.,  C.P.A.* 

Necessity  of  keeping  accounts. — '''Briefly  stated,  the  object 
in  keeping  books  of  account  is  to  furnish  the  essential  facts  from 
which  one  can  find  the  financial  condition  of  the  business  over  a 
given  period  of  time. 

"-All  data  should  be  collected  with  a  definite  end  in  view. 

''-The  farmer  desires  to  make  as  much  money  as  he  can  from 
the  time  he  puts  in  and  the  investment  he  has  made.  A  desire 
to  make  money  is  usually  not  sufficient.  The  desire  must  be 
backed  up  by  action.  The  action  should  be  directed  along  proper 
channels.  The  proper  channels  can  be  determined  very  largely 
by  an  intelligent  perusal  and  interpretation  of  the  accounts  prop- 
erly kept  with  the  aid  of  cost  records. 

"^The  assertion  that  farmers  are  making  large  profits  is  erro- 
neous. They  are  living  on  the  earnings  of  their  investment  and 
not  on  the  real  profits  of  the  farm. 

' '  "The  ledger  account  is  the  starting  point  for  all  analyses  and 
comparisons  of  results." 

Keeping  the  accounts  must  precede  the  interpretation.  Keep- 
ing account  of  one's  business  affairs  means  the  recording  of 
events  in  a  systematic  way  as  they  arise.  The  systematic 
method  in  use  all  over  the  country  by  commercial  and  industrial 
concerns  is  desirable  but  not  absolutely  necessary  on  the  farm. 
It  is  desirable  because  (1)  it  enables  one  to  find  readily  and 
accurately  the  reason  for  the  specific  amount  of  loss  or  gain, 
(2)  it  permits  one  to  prove  the  work  and  thus  avoid  errors  in 
recording,  (3)  it  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for  one  to 
check  up  on  one's  assets  and  liabilities,  and  (4)  it  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  one's  heirs  or  successors  to  find  out  what  the  financial 
situation  is  when  occasion  demands. 

Methods. —  All  records  may  be  kept  in  one  account  book  with 
ledger  ruling  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred 
pages.    Reserve  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  pages  for  the  record- 

*  Professor  of  Accountancy,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  Illinois. 
'  Scovill's  Farm  Accounting,  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

484 


THE  FARM  RECORD  485 

ing  of  details  concerning  the  use  of  labor,  the  work  done  by 
horses  and  the  consumption  of  feed  by  livestock. 

Accounts  should  be  kept  with  cash,  real  estate,  equipment,  each 
person  to  whom  or  from  whom  money  is  owing;  each  class  of 
livestock,  each  crop  raised,  equipment  expense,  miscellaneous  in- 
come, household.  The  titles  of  the  accounts  mentioned  above 
should  be  written  at  the  tops  of  the  pages  at  reasonable  intervals, 
allowing  more  pages  for  some  accounts  than  others.  For  exam- 
ple, the  word  "cash"  should  be  written  at  the  top  of  the  first 
page,  leaving  about  twenty  pages  to  be  used  for  cash  entries 
later  when  pages  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  become  filled  with  such  items. 
Then  at  the  top  of  page  21  might  be  written  the  words  "Real 
Estate."    Only  one  page  need  be  reserved  for  this. 

Procedure. —  AVhen  starting  to  keep  accounts,  the  first  step  is 
the  taking  of  a  physical  inventory  or  preparation  of  a  list  of 
assets  and  liabilities.  This  consists  in  listing  the  quantities  and 
value  of  all  assets  and  liabilities  of  the  farmer.  (An  asset  is 
property  controlled  or  owned  by  the  farmer  and  amounts  col- 
lectible by  him  from  others.  A  liability  is  an  amount  owing  by 
the  farmer  to  some  one  else.)  The  difference  between  the  total 
assets  and  total  liabilities  is  known  as  the  net  worth  of  the  indi- 
vidual or  business. 

Assets  are  listed  by  groups  as  cash,  real  estate,  equipment, 
livestock,  etc.  Details  are  shown  under  each  group.  For  exam- 
ple, under  "equipment"  are  listed  wagons,  plows,  cultivators, 
and  other  units  of  machinery  and  tools. 

AVith  the  inventory  completed  and  the  net  worth  calculated 
therefrom,  one  is  ready  to  make  the  opening  entries  in  the  ac- 
counts. The  amount  of  each  asset,  as  cash,  real  estate,  equip- 
ment, cattle,  horses,  corn,  hay,  etc.,  is  recorded  on  the  left  side 
of  the  account  bearing  these  respective  titles.  Any  liabilities 
are  recorded  on  the  right  side  of  the  properly  named  liability 
account,  as  mortgage  payable,  White  Implement  Co.,  etc.  The 
net  worth  is  recorded  on  the  right  side  of  an  account  with  the 
farmer,  commonly  known  as  proprietorship  or  capital  account. 
Thus,  the  sum  of  all  items  on  the  left  side  of  the  ledger  accounts 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  items  on  the  right  side.  This  equality 
is  maintained  at  all  times  by  recording  for  every  transaction 
equal  amounts  on  the  left  and  right  side  of  the  ledger.  Every 
transaction  permits  of  the  recording  of  an  amount  in  two 
accounts  and  also  requires  such  two-fold  effect  to  be  shown  in 
order  to  present  the  results  in  the  best  manner. 

Construction  of  accounts. —  Presuming  that  all  assets  and  lia- 


486  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

bilities  have  been  entered  in  the  accounts,  if  $400  is  paid  out  for 
a  tractor,  entries  are  made  in  the  Cash  and  Equipment  accounts 
as  follows: 

Cash 


19 

Feb.  16.     F.  Lynn,  1  tractor.  .   $400.00 


Equipment 

19 

Feb.  16. 

Cash — tractor  . .  . 

,.   $400.00 

When  forty  dollars  is  paid  for  labor,  the  cash  is  again  reduced 
and  the  cost  of  labor  is  increased ;  hence  forty  dollars  is  placed 
on  the  right  side  of  cash  and  left  side  of  an  account  called  labor. 

It  may  be  stated  as  a  general  rule  that  when  any  property  is 
parted  with,  its  value  is  recorded  on  the  right  side  of  the  account 
bearing  a  title  to  indicate  the  property  so  parted  with.  At  the 
same  time,  the  same  amount  is  recorded  on  the  left  side  of  the 
account  that  shows  the  reason  for  parting  with  the  property. 
Thus,  if  one  pays  fifty  dollars  for  household  furniture,  for 
groceries  or  for  Christmas  presents,  an  entry  for  fifty  dollars  is 
made  on  the  right  side  of  cash  and  the  left  side  of  Household 
account.  These  show  respectively  the  property  parted  with  and 
the  reason  therefor. 

Again,  if  one  pays  five  hundred  dollars  in  reduction  of  a  mort- 
gage, the  amount  is  shown  on  the  right  side  of  cash  and  left  side 
of  mortgage  payable  accounts. 

A  second  general  rule  to  follow  in  recording  one's  transac- 
tions is  that  when  any  property  is  received  its  value  is  recorded 
on  the  left  side  of  the  account  bearing  a  title  to  indicate  the 
property  received.  At  the  same  time,  the  same  amount  is  re- 
corded on  the  right  side  of  an  account  that  shows  the  reason  for 
receiving  the  property.  For  example,  if  one  receives  three  hun- 
dred dollars  cash  from  the  sale  of  hogs,  the  entry  is : 


THE  FARM  RECORD  487 

Ca.sh 


19 

Mar.  16.     W.  Wild,  hogs $300.00 


Hogs 


19 

Mar.  1().     Cash,  hogs $300.00 


If  one  borrows  one  thousand  dollars  cash  on  a  note,  the 
amount  is  recorded  on  the  left  side  of  cash  account  (the  prop- 
erty received)  and  on  the  right  side  of  notes  payable  account 
(the  reason  for  receiving  the  cash).  Cash  received  from  the 
sale  of  milk  requires  an  entry  on  the  left  side  of  cash  and  the 
right  side  of  cattle  account. 

In  keeping  cost  records  of  a  simple  t5'pe,  one  records  all  cash 
transactions  from  day  to  day  as  presented  above.  In  addition 
he  keeps  a  more  or  less  detailed  record  of  the  quantity  of  crops 
consumed  by  live  stock,  the  relative  amount  of  labor,  and  horse 
labor  performed  for  each  farm  element  and  the  quantity  of  vari- 
ous farm  products  consumed  by  the  household.  Such  items  can 
be  estimated  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly,  or  a  detailed  accurate 
record  can  be  kept.  By  whatever  method  obtained,  the  quan- 
tities and  hours  are  valued  and  used  as  a  basis  for  making 
entries  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

Entries  for  crops  consumed  by  livestock  are  made  on  the  right 
side  of  the  accounts  of  each  of  the  several  crops  consumed  and 
on  the  left  side  of  each  of  the  several  classes  of  live  stock.  (This 
complies  with  the  general  principle,  because,  e.  g.,  there  is  less 
corn  and  more  hog.)  Labor  account  receives  an  entry  on  its 
right  side  for  all  labor  performed  (hours,  time  rate  per  hour, 
commonly  thirty  cents),  the  same  amount  being  split  up  into 
several  items  and  recorded  on  the  left  side  of  the  various  crop, 
livestock,  household  or  other  accounts,  in  the  interest  of  which 
the  labor  was  used.  Similarly,  the  horse  labor  (hours,  time  rate 
per  hour,  commonly  fifteen  cents)  is  entered  on  the  right  side  of 
horse  account  and  left  side  of  the  accounts  affected  by  the  use 
of  horses. 


488   THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Depreciation  on  buildings  and  equipment,  calculated  at  three 
per  cent  of  the  former  and  ten  per  cent  of  the  latter,  is  recorded 
by  showing  the  amounts  on  the  right  side  of  real  estate  and  left 
side  of  building  expense  accounts  in  the  one  case,  and  on  the 
right  side  of  equipment  and  left  side  of  equipment  expense 
accounts  in  the  other  case. 

Finding  the  profit  or  loss. —  The  profit  or  loss  for  the  year  is 
obtained  after  taking  another  inventory  at  the  close  of  the  year, 
in  accordance  with  the  following  plan : 

Make  two  columns  side  by  side  headed  respectively  *' losses" 
and  ' '■  gains. ' '  In  the  ' 'losses ' '  column  record  the  amount  of  any 
balances  of  equipment  expense,  building  expense,  labor,  general 
farm  expense,  or  any  other  specific  expense  or  repair  account. 
In  the  *' gains"  colmnn  record  the  amount  of  any  balances  of 
miscellaneous  income  or  other  specific  income  account.  Then 
proceed  to  enter  all  inventories  of  livestock,  crops  and  house- 
hold furnishings  as  of  the  close  of  the  year  on  the  right  side  of 
the  proper  accounts,  as  cattle  inventory  on  right  side  of  cattle 
account,  corn  inventory  on  the  right  side  of  corn  account,  and 
so  on.  After  recording  such  inventories  in  the  accounts  with 
livestock,  crops  and  household,  the  difference  between  the  right 
and  left  side  of  each  is  listed  under  ^ bosses"  or  *' gains"  in 
accordance  with  the  following  principle : 

If  the  left  side  of  any  crop  or  livestock  or  household  account 
is  greater  than  the  right,  after  including  the  inventory  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  place  the  difference  between  the  two  sides  of 
the  account  in  the  colmmi  headed  ''losses."  If  the  right  side  is 
greater,  place  the  difference  in  the  ''gains  column,"  writing  the 
proper  title  (cattle,  corn,  etc.)  to  the  left  of  each  amount. 

After  listing  all  losses  and  gains  as  described  above,  the  dif- 
ference between  the  loss  and  gain  columns  is  calculated.  This 
represents  the  net  gain  or  loss  of  the  individual  for  the  year. 
If  the  gains  are  greater,  add  the  amount  of  the  net  gain  to  the 
proprietor's  capital  as  shoAvn  in  the  proprietorship  or  capital 
or  net  worth  account.  If  the  losses  are  greater,  subtract  the  net 
amount  of  the  loss  from  the  proprietor's  capital.  Such  addition 
of  net  gain  to  or  subtraction  of  net  loss  from  the  net  worth  shows 
the  capital,  proprietorship  or  net  worth  at  the  close  of  the  year. 

Proof  of  the  profits. —  That  the  profit  or  loss  calculated  is  cor- 
rect may  be  proved  by  making  a  list  of  assets  and  liabilities  as 
they  appear  in  the  ledger,  including  inventories  recorded  for 
livestock  and  crops.  Thus,  the  difference  between  the  two  sides 
each  of  cash,  real  estate,  equipment  and  other  accounts  showing 
assets,  added  to  the  several  inventories  of  live  stock,  and  crops 


THE  FAEM  RECORD  489 

at  the  close  of  the  year  is  the  total  assets  at  the  close  of  the  year. 
Subtracting  from  this  amount  any  liabilities  shown  by  the  ledger 
accounts  gives  the  net  worth  at  the  close  of  the  year.  This  net 
worth  or  proj^rietorship  should  be  the  same  as  that  obtained  by 
adding  the  gain  of  the  year  to  the  proprietor's  account  balance 
as  described  above. 

Profit  as  a  farmer.—  The  net  gain  for  the  year  plus  a  ''loss" 
on  Household  or  minus  a  ''gain"  on  Household  equals  the  profit 
from  farming  operations. 

Continuing  the  accounts. —  The  profits  having  been  deter- 
mined and  proved,  the  accounts  for  the  next  year  are  started  in 
the  same  way  as  for  the  beginning  of  the  first  year.  Care  should 
be  exercised  in  ruling  off  or  otherwise  separating  the  accounts 
of  two  successive  years. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

PESTS  OX  THE  FARM  AXD  THEIR  COXTROL* 

Meadow  and  pine  mice  and  common  rats. — 

Damage  done. —  Injures  farm  crops,  meadow  and  pasture 
grass.  Eats  seeds,  bulbs  and  vegetables.  Girdles  fruit  trees. 
In  fact,  when  driven  by  hunger,  both  the  Pine  and  Meadow  mice 
will  destroy  shrubs,  berry  bushes,  vines  and  many  species  of 
forest  trees. 


Fig.  228. —  Field  mouse  caught  in  baited  guillotine  trap. — U.  8.  Dept.  of 

Agriculture. 

Control. —  Bait  guillotine  traps  with  grain,  cheese  or  meat  and 
set  in  mouse  runs.  There  are  a  number  of  types  of  rat  traps  on 
the  market  that  are  very  effective. 

For  poisoning  meadow  mice  on  large  areas  the  following 
methods  are  recommended: 

Dry-grain  formula. —  Mix  thoroughly  one  ounce  powdered 
strychnine  (alkaloid),  one  ounce  pow^dered  bicarbonate  of  soda, 
and  one-eighth  ounce  (or  less)  of  saccharin.  Put  the  mixture  in 
a  tin  pepperbox  and  sift  it  gradually  over  fifty  pounds  of  crushed 
wheat,  or  forty  pounds  of  crushed  oats,  in  a  metal  tub,  mixing 
the  grain  constantly  so  that  the  poison  mil  be  evenly  distributed. 
Dry  mixing  has  the  advantage  that  the  grain  vasiy  be  kept  any 
length  of  time  without  fermentation.    If  it  is  desired  to  moisten 

*  Formulas  taken  from  Bull.  932,  IT.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

490 


PESTS  ON  THE  FARM  AND  THEIR  CONTROL    491 

the  grain  to  facilitate  thorough  mixing,  it  will  be  well  to  use  a 
thin  starch  paste  (as  described  below,  but  without  strychnine) 
before  applying  the  poison.  The  starch  soon  hardens,  and  fer- 
mentation is  not  likely  to  follow. 

Wet-grain  formula. —  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  strychnine  (sul- 
phate) in  two  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Dissolve  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  laundry  starch  in  one-half  pint  of  cold  water.  Add  the 
starch  to  the  strychnine  solution  and  boil  for  a  few  minutes 
until  the  starch  is  clear.    Pour  the  hot  starch  over  one  bushel  of 


Fig.  229. —  Field  mouse  caught  in  unbaited  guillotine  trap. — U.  8.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

oats  in  a  metal  tub  and  stir  thoroughly.  Let  the  grain  stand 
over  night  to  absorb  the  poison. 

Alfalfa  forynuJa. —  One  ounce  of  strychnine  (sulphate)  dis- 
solved in  two  gallons  of  hot  water  was  found  sufficient  to  poison 
thirty  pounds  of  chopped  alfalfa  previously  moistened  with 
water. 

Oatmeal  formula. —  Dissolve  one-sixteenth  ounce  of  strych- 
nine in  one  pint  of  boiling  water  and  pour  it  over  as  much  oat- 
meal (about  two  pounds)  as  it  will  wet.  Mix  until  all  the  grain 
is  moistened.  Put  it  out,  a  teaspoonful  at  a  place,  under  shelter 
of  weed  and  brush  piles  or  wide  boards. 

Especially  recommended  in  destroying  pine  mice. 

Potato  formula. —  Cut  SAveet  potatoes  into  pieces  about  the 
size  of  grapes.  Place  three  quarts  of  these  cut  baits  in  a  pan  or 
bucket,  and  from  a  tin  pepperbox  slowly  sift  over  them  one- 
eighth  ounce  of  powdered  strychnine  mixed  ^x\\\\  an  equal  quan- 
tity of  baking  soda,  stirring  constantly  so  that  the  poison  is 


492  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

evenly  distributed.  Poison  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  pota- 
toes are  cut  and  bait  should  be  put  out  while  fresh. 

The  poisoned  bait  is  to  be  distributed  over  the  infested  area, 
not  more  than  a  teaspoonful  at  a  place,  care  being  taken  to  put 
it  in  mouse  runs  and  at  the  entrances  to  burrows.  To  avoid 
destroying  birds  it  should,  whenever  possible,  be  placed  under 
such  shelters  as  piles  of  weeds,  straw,  brush,  or  other  litter,  or 
under  boards.  Small  drain  tiles  one  and  one-half  inch  in  diam- 
eter have  sometimes  been  used  to  advantage  to  hold  poisoned 
grain,  and  old  tin  cans  with  the  edges  bent  nearly  together  will 
serve  the  same  purpose. 

Young  fruit  trees  may  be  protected  from  mice  and  rabbits  by 
keeping  down  the  weeds,  protecting  the  bark  with  a  fine  mesh 
wire,  one  thickness  placed  about  the  trunk  and  by  packing  the 
light  snow  tightly  about  the  trees  during  early  winter  and  late 
spring. 

Cotton  rat. —  Damage  done. —  Destroys  growing  crops  and 
grain  in  shocks. 

Control. —  The  same  poisoned  bait  used  for  field  mice  will 
destroy  the  cotton  rat. 

Common  rats. —  The  common  rat  may  be  baited  with  the  same 
poisons  as  recommended  for  meadow  mice.  Steel  traps  are  also 
effective. 

Pocket  gophers. —  Damage  done. —  Throw  up  mounds,  burrow 
in  the  fields,  eat  growing  grain  and  vegetables.  Destroy  trees  by 
gnawing  the  roots. 

Control. —  Trapping  is  an  effective  method  of  keeping  the 
gophers  in  check. 

In  irrigated  districts,  where  w^ater  is  available,  flooding  the 
land  will  drive  out  the  animals,  and  they  may  be  killed  by  men 
and  dogs.  Fumigation  of  the  burrows  with  carbon  bisulphid  or 
wdth  sulphur  smoke,  Avhile  often  recommended  as  a  means  of 
destroying  pocket  gophers,  has  been  found  extremely  uncertain 
and  costly. 

Poison  for  pocket  gophers. —  Cut  sweet  potatoes  or  parsnips 
into  pieces  with  the  largest  diameter  less  than  an  inch.  Wash 
and  drain  four  quarts  of  the  cut  baits.  Place  in  a  metal  pan, 
and  from  a  pepperbox  slowly  sift  over  the  dampened  baits  one- 
eighth  ounce  of  powdered  strychnine  (alkaloid)  and  one-tenth 
as  much  saccharin  (well  shaken  together  or  ground  together  in 
a  mortar),  stirring  to  distribute  the  poison  evenly. 

Ground  squirrels. —  Damage  done. —  Destroy  fields  by  burro^v- 
ing  through  irrigation  ditches  and  also  by  eating  growing  crops. 


PESTS  ON  THE  FARM  AND  THEIR  CONTROL    493 


The  Beeckey  ground  squirrel  is  knowii  to  be  a  carrier  of  bubonic 
plague. 

Control. —  Poison  for  Columbia  ground  squirrels. —  Mix  one 
ounce  of  powdered  strychnine  (alkaloid),  one  ounce  of  powdered 
bicarbonate  of  soda,  one  teaspoonful  of  saccharin,  and  one-half 
pound  of  dry  powdered  laundry  starch,  and  stir  enough  cold 
water  to  make  a  smooth,  creamy  paste.  Apply  to  twelve  quarts 
of  good,  clean  oats  in  a  metal  tub  or  other  vessel,  and  stir  thor- 
oughly to  distribute  the  poison  evenly.    When  the  poisoned  grain 


Types  of  spt'fial  pocket-gopher  traps. — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


is  dry,  scatter  it,  along  squirrel  trails  or  on  hard  soil  on  the  sur- 
face near  the  squirrel  burrows.  A  quart  of  the  grain  should 
make  forty  or  fifty  baits,  and  if  properly  distributed  stock  will 
not  be  endangered  by  this  quantity. 

Poison  for  Richardson  ground  squirrels. —  Mix  one  table- 
spoonful  of  laundry  starch  in  one-half  teacup  of  cold  water,  and 
stir  it  into  one-half  pint  of  boiling  water  to  make  it  a  thin,  clear 
mucilage.  Mix  one  ounce  of  powdered  strychnine  with  one  ounce 
of  powdered  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  stir  the  mixture  into  the 
hot  starch,  making  a  smooth,  creamy  paste  free  from  lumps. 
Stir  in  one-cpiarter  pint  of  heavj^  corn  syrup  and  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  glycerin,  and,  finally,  one  scant  teaspoonful  of  saccharin. 
Apply  to  twenty  c^uarts  of  oats,  and  mix  thoroughly  to  coat  every 
kernel.    Each  quart  of  the  poisoned  grain  should  make  forty  to 


494  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 

sixty  baits.  Distribute  in  same  manner  as  stated  for  poisoning 
Columbia  ground  squirrels. 

Poison  for  California,  or  "digger,"  ground  squirrels. —  Pre- 
pare by  same  formula  as  for  Richardson  ground  squirrels,  but 
use  sixteen  quarts  of  clean  barley  instead  of  oats.  Distribute  as 
for  poisoning  Columbia  ground  squirrels. 

Prairie-dogs. —  Damage  done. —  Eats  vegetation.  Destructive 
to  pastures. 

Control. —  Poison  for  prairie-dogs. —  Mix  thoroughly  one 
ounce  of  powdered  strychnine  (alkaloid)  and  one  ounce  of  com- 
mon baking  soda  (bicarbonate).  Dissolve  one  heaping  table- 
spoonful  of  dry  laundry  starch  in  a  little  cold  water  and  add  it 
to  three-quarters  pint  of  boiling  water.  Boil  and  stir  until  a 
thin,  clear  paste  is  formed.  Slowly  sift  the  mixture  of  strych- 
nine and  soda  into  the  starch  paste,  stirring  constantly  to  form 
a  smooth,  creamy  mass.  Add  one-quarter  pint  of  heavy  corn 
syrup  and  one  tablespoonful  of  glycerin,  and  stir.  Add  one- 
tenth  ounce  of  saccharin,  and  again  stir  thoroughly.  Pour  this 
mixture  while  still  hot  over  thirteen  quarts  of  clean  oats  and 
mix  until  all  the  grain  is  coated. 

If  alkaloid  strychnine  is  not  available,  the  sulphate  may  be 
used,  either  powdered  or  in  crystals,  but  it  is  necessary  to  vary 
the  formula.  Dissolve  the  strychnine  in  the  boiling  water  before 
adding  the  cold  starch.  After  the  poisoned  starch  paste  is  clear, 
stir  in  the  soda  very  slowly.  Then  add  the  syrup,  glycerin,  and 
saccharin  as  in  the  above  directions  and  mix  with  the  grain. 

For  mixing  small  quantities  an  ordinary  metal  washtub  is  con- 
venient. For  large  quantities  a  tight,  smooth  box  may  be  used, 
and  the  mixing  done  with  a  hoe  or  spade. 

"Wheat  is  well  adapted  for  winter  poisoning,  and  in  the  South, 
where  heavy  oats  are  rarely  obtainable,  milo  or  feterita  is  an 
excellent  substitute. 

Woodchucks. —  Damage  done. —  Burrows  and  mounds  which 
interfere  with  farm  operations.  Eats  vegetables,  clover  and 
other  crops.  Where  there  are  but  few  woodchucks  on  the  farm, 
shooting  and  trapping  is  advised. 

Control. — 'They  may  be  poisoned  by  strychnine  inserted  in 
pieces  of  sweet  apple,  carrot,  or  sweet  potato.  The  animals  are 
often  destroyed  in  their  burrows  by  fumigation  with  carbon 
bisulphid  or  by  the  discharge  of  blasting  powder. 

To  destroy  woodchucks  with  carbon  bisulphid,  saturate  a  wad 
of  cotton  or  waste  with  about  one  and  one-half  ounce  of  the 
liquid.    Place  the  cotton  well  inside  the  woodchuck  burrow  and 


PESTS  ON  THE  FAKM  AND  THEIR  CONTROL    495 

close  the  opening  with  a  piece  of  sod,  well  stamped  dowTi.  If 
there  are  two  or  more  entrances  to  a  burrow,  all  but  the  one  in 
which  the  cotton  is  to  be  placed  should  be  tightly  closed  before 
fumigation. 

Rabbits. —  Damage  done. —  Girdle  young  fruit  trees  and  after 
deep  snows  often  eat  the  buds  and  twigs.  Eats  growing  crops, 
especially  garden  vegetables  such  as  cabbage. 

Control. —  Poison  wash. —  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  strychnine 
(sulphate)  in  three  quarts  of  boiling  water.  Dissolve  one-half 
pound  of  laundrj^  starch  in  one  pint  of  cold  water,  stirring  thor- 
oughly. Pour  the  starch  into  the  vessel  containing  the  strych- 
nine and  boil  the  mixture  a  short  time  until  the  starch  is  clear. 
Add  six  ounces  of  glycerin  and  stir.  AVhen  the  paste  is  cool 
enough  apply  to  tree  trunks  with  a  paint  brush. 

For  poisoning  jack  rabbits  in  winter  the  following  formula  is 
recommended : 

Poison  halts. —  Good  oats,  twelve  quarts;  powdered  strj'ch- 
nine,  one  ounce;  laundry  starch,  one  tablespoonful ;  soda  (bicar- 
bonate), one  ounce;  saccharin,  one-eighth  ounce;  water,  one 
quart.  Prepare  as  directed  for  mixing  prairie-dog  poison.  Not 
over  a  tablespoonful  of  the  poisoned  grain  should  be  used  in  a 
single  bait,  and  this  should  be  scattered  considerably.  A  little 
alfalfa  hay  may  be  used  to  attract  rabbits  to  the  grain.  The 
poison  is  especially  effective  when  snow  covers  the  ground. 

Partly  ripened  or  ripe  heads  of  barley  or  wheat  soaked  in  a 
sweetened  solution  of  strychnine  or  coated  with  the  starch- 
strychnine  paste  just  described  have  also  proved  effective  bait 
for  rabbits,  but  care  must  be  exercised  in  using  them,  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  eaten  by  live  stock. 

Moles. —  Damage  done. —  Eats  the  roots  of  crops.  Especially 
bad  on  lawns,  burrowing  close  to  the  surface. 

Control. —  Special  mole  traps  on  traveled  burrows.  Fresh 
corn  treated  with  strychnine  placed  in  the  burrows  is  effective. 

Mosquitoes. —  Control. —  Cover  rain  barrels,  drain  off  stand- 
ing water  or  fill  in  the  hollows.  Eliminate  all  breeding  places 
by  disposing  of  the  water  or  covering  the  container.  One  ounce 
of  kerosene  to  fifteen  square  feet  of  water  will  destroy  the  larvae 
as  they  come  to  the  surface  to  breathe.  Top  minnows,  sunfish, 
sticklebacks  and  goldfish  will  destroy  the  larvae. 

House  ants.*— Co»fro?.— The  distinctively  house-inhabiting 
ants,  such  as  the  little  red  or  Pharaoh's  ant,  and  other  imported 

*  F.  B.  740,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


496  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

species  nesting  in  the  woodwork,  masonry,  or  articles  of  furni- 
ture, etc.,  are  often  very  difficult  to  eradicate  because  of  their 
inaccessibility.  If  the  nest  can  be  located  by  following  the  work- 
ers back  to  their  point  of  disappearance,  the  inmates  of  the  nest, 
if  near  by,  may  sometimes  be  reached  by  injecting  a  little  disul- 
phid  of  carbon,  kerosene,  or  gasoline  into  the  opening  by  means 
of  an  oil  can  or  small  syringe.  In  the  use  of  these  substances, 
naturally,  precautions  should  be  taken  to  see  that  no  tire  is  pres- 
ent, as  all  of  them  are  inflaimnable.  If  the  nest  is  under  flooring 
it  may  sometimes  be  gotten  at  by  removing  a  section ;  but,  as  a 
rule,  unless  the  colony  can  thus  be  reached  and  destroyed,  other 
measures  are  of  only  temporary  avail  if  food  or  other  conditions 
continue  to  attract  the  ants  and  facilitate  their  continued  breed- 
ing in  the  houses. 

The  removal,  therefore,  of  the  attracting  substances  in  houses, 
wherever  practical,  should  be  the  first  step.  Ants  are  attracted 
by  food  material,  especially  cake,  bread,  sugar,  meat,  and  like 
substances,  in  pantries  and  elsewhere,  and  the  nuisance  of  their 
presence  can  be  largely  limited  by  promptly  cleaning  up  all  food 
scattered  by  children  and  by  keeping  in  the  pantry  or  storeroom 
all  food  supplies  which  may  attract  ants,  in  ant-proof  metal  con- 
tainers or  in  ice  boxes,  and  limiting  the  amount  of  such  articles 
as  far  as  possible  to  daily  needs. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  it  is  possible  to  drive  ants  away  from 
household  supplies  by  the  use  of  repellants,  particularly  cam- 
phor and  napththalene  flakes  or  powdered  moth  balls.  The  use 
of  most  of  such  repellant  substances,  however,  in  connection  with 
food  supplies,  is  impractical,  and  careful  tests  have  indicated 
that  such  substances  have  only  slightly  repellant  properties  and 
bring  comparatively  little  benefit. 

The  collection  of  ants  by  the  use  of  attractive  baits  is  fre- 
quently recommended.  Perhaps  as  convenient  a  bait  as  any 
consists  of  small  sponges  moistened  with  sweetened  water  and 
placed  in  situations  where  they  can  be  easily  reached  by  the  ants. 
These  sponges  may  be  collected  several  times  daily  and  the  ants 
swarming  on  them  destroyed  by  immersion  in  hot  water.  It  is 
reported  also  that  a  syrup  made  by  dissolving  borax  and  sugar 
in  boiling  water  and  distributed  on  sponges  will  effect  the  de- 
struction of  the  ants  in  numbers.  Remedies  of  this  kind,  how- 
ever, are  of  doubtful  value.  They  may  be  useful  at  the  outset 
when  the  colonies  are  few  and  small  and  when  most  of  the  indi- 
viduals may,  by  these  means,  be  secured  and  destroyed.  Very 
frequently,  however,  the  distribution  of  such  baits  will  simply 


PESTS  ON  THE  FARM  AND  THEIR  CONTROL    497 

result  in  a  more  wide  exploitation  of  a  good  forage  ground  and 
an  actual  increase  of  the  ant  nuisance. 

A  more  efficient  remedy,  where  it  can  be  safely  used,  is  a  syrup 
poisoned  mth  arsenate  of  soda,  the  idea  being  that  the  ants  mil 
collect  this  poison  syrup  and  convey  it  to  their  nests,  so  that  not 
only  the  ants  which  collect  the  syrup  are  ultimately  killed,  but 
the  inmates  of  nests  feeding  on  it  also  succumb.    The  formula 


Fig.  231. — The  little  black  ant  (Monomorium  minimum),  a,  Male;  6,  pupa; 
c,  female;  (/,  same  with  wings;  e,  worker;  /,  larva;  g,  eggs;  group  of  workers 
in  line  of  march  below.  All  enlarged,  the  lettered  illustrations  all  drawn  to 
the  same  scale. — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


for  the  preparation  of  this  syrup  is  as  follows :  One  pound  of 
sugar  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water,  to  which  should  be  added 
125  grains  of  arsenate  of  soda.  The  mixture  should  be  boiled 
and  strained,  and  on  cooling  used  with  sponges,  as  already 
described.  The  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  honey  is  said  to 
add  to  the  attractiveness  to  ants  of  this  mixture.  Naturally  the 
greatest  precautions  should  be  taken  in  preparing  this  syrup 
and  in  safeguarding  it  afterwards  to  prevent  its  being  the  cause 
of  poisoning  to  human  beings  or  domestic  animals.    This  method 


498  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

of  control  has  been  tested  for  three  years  by  an  expert^  of  the 
Bureau  of  Entomology  of  this  department  and  has  given  very 
satisfactory  results.  Similar  success  with  it  has  been  reported 
by  others,  including  persons  engaged  professionally  in  insect 
extermination.  A  related  formula  experimentally  worked  out 
for  the  Argentine  ant  is  given  in  a  special  bulletin  on  this  insect.^ 
This  formula  is  as  follows : 

Granulated  sugar 15       pounds 

Water   7%  pints 

Tartaric  acid  (crystallized) 14  ounce 

Boil  these  ingredients  together  slowly  for  thirty  minutes  and 
allow  to  cool.    Then  slowly  dissolve  three-fourths  ounce  sodium 
5  arsenite     (NaAsOo) 

r   ^\    Nofr-     ^^  ^^   one-half  pint  of 

--aoL    t-  -j^^l.    ^yg^i^gj.^      Allow 

this  to  cool,  then 
add  it  to  the  syrup, 
stirring  thoroughly. 
Add  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  pure 
honey  to  the  syrup 
and  the  mixture  is 
ready  for  use. 

Fig.  232. — A ''little  house  Rj"  (Fanniabrevis).   Female  HoUSe   flv    (a   dlS- 

at  left,  male  at  right.    Much  enlarged.  •      \ 

ease  carrier). — 
Control. —  The  fly  breeds  in  manure   (horse),  garbage  and 
filth.    Erect  fly-proof  manure  pits  or  scatter  manure  on  the  soil 
once  each  week.    All  garbage  cans  should 
be  covered  with  a  tight-fitting  lid.    Clean 
up  all  filth  in  which  flies  might  breed.  \ 

Stable  fly. — Attacks  warm-blooded  ani-     ' 
male,  disturbing  and  irritating  them.    Cer- 
tain  diseases    are    transmitted   by   these  MfCf^^n 
flies. 

Control. —  In  Farmers*  Bulletin  540, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  fol- 
lowing repellant  is  recommended:  *'A 
mixture  of  fish  oil  (one  gallon),  oil  of  pine  fig.  233.— The  true  house 
tar  (two  ounces),  oil  of  pennyroyal  (two  %i^lge±-TTD7jt'. 
ounces),  and  kerosene  (one-half  pint)  was         of  Agriculture. 

1  C.  H.  Poponoe 

*  Barber,  E.  R.      The  Argentine  Ant:     Distribution  and  Control  in   the  United 
States.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.  Bui.  377. 


I 


PESTS  ON  THE  FARM  AND  THEIR  CONTROL    499 

found  to  be  very  effective  in  keeping  the  flies  off  live  stock  when 
applied  lightly  but  thoroughly  to  the  portions  of  animals  not 
covered  with  blankets  or  nets." 

According  to  F.  C.  Bishop  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
the  fly  breeds  in  straw  stacks  throughout  the  grain  belt.  He 
recommends  that  the  stack  should  be  built  so  that  the  sides  are 
nearly  vertical  and  rounding  it  up  well  on  top,  in  order  to  better 
shed  the  rain. 

Destroy  old  stacks.  Manure  pits  or  cellars  should  be  made 
fly  proof. 

Grasshopper. —  Feeds  on  growing  plants,  usually  grass  and 
weeds. 

Control. —  Fall  plowdng  six  to  ten  inches  in  depth  is  highly 
recommended. 

The  poison  baits  and  spraj''  mixture  are  suggested  in  Exten- 
sion Bulletin  4,  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture. 

"Kansas  Bait."— 

Bran    20       pounds,  mix  dry 

Paris  green   1       pound,  mix  dry 

Oranges    (or  lemons) 3,      chop  fine 

Molasses 2      quarts 

Water 3%  gallons 

Mix  SO  as  to  form  a  mash  not  too  moist,  scatter  over  infected 
field,  either  early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the  afternoon.  The 
insects  will  not  eat  this  mixture  if  dry. 

'  *  Griddle  mixture. ' ' — 

Paris  green  1  pound 

Salt  , 2  pounds 

Horse  manure  (preferably  fresh) 50  pounds 

Add  enough  water  to  make  the  mixture  moist  and  scatter  it 
over  the  infested  area. 

Sprays. —  Apply  early  in  the  season. 

Arsenate  of  lead 5  pounds 

Water   50  gallons 

Another  effective  solution. — 

Paris  green   I'lA  pounds 

Water  50      gallons 

Fresh  lime 1       pound 

If  the  sodium  arsenate  is  used  it  should  be  applied  at  the  rate 
of  one  pound  of  the  commercial  preparation  to  sixty  gallons  of 
water,  with  two  quarts  of  molasses. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Introduction. —  Every  progressive  farmer  is  to-day  fighting 
the  serious  and  persistent  menace,  weeds.  The  United  States 
government  realizing  the  importance  of  the  control  or  eradica- 
tion has  passed  laws  relating  to  certain  practices  which  the 


Fig.  234. —  Canada  thistle,  showing  the  flowering  top  of  the  plant  and 
the  underground  system   (  X  i )  • 

500 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


501 


Fig.  235. —  Wild  Buckwheat.  1,  Entire  plant;  2,  plant  winding  around  a  stalk 
of  timothy;  3,  root  system;  4.  seedling;  5,  seedling  somewhat  older;  6,  seed 
natural  size  and  enlarged. 


502  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


farmers  should  follow  in  destroying  weeds,  but  these  laws  have 
been  very  ineffective.  If  the  farmers  would  cooperate  in  the 
control  of  such  w^eeds  as  the  Canadian  thistle,  milkweed,  and 
others,  they  might  in  a  short  time  free  the  community  of  them. 
The  man  who  has  a  weedy  farm  not  only  loses  a  large  per  cent 
of  his  own  crops  because  of  the  loss  of  moisture,  plant  food, 
crowding,  shading,  etc.,  but  he  allows  the  seed  to  ripen  and  thus 
the  adjacent  fields  of  his  neighbors  become  infested  and  so  this 
menace  spreads. 


Fig,  236. —  Bull  thistle,  showing  floweiing  top  of  plant,  separate  leaf  and  roots  ( X  3)  ■ 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


503 


The  farmer  should  be  able  to  answer  the  following  questions 
before  effective  work  can  be  done  in  the  control  and  eradication 
of  weeds : 

1.  Is  the  plant  an  annual?  This  type  of  plant  comes  from 
seed  in  the  spring,  grows,  bears  flower  and  seed,  and  dies  in  one 
year.  One  of  the  most  effective  methods  of  control  is  to  destroy 
the  plant  before  the  seed  ripens. 


Fig.  237. —  Two  stages  of  growth  of  the  wild  oats  seedling 
(natural  size)  ;  also  enlarged  and  natural  sized  draw- 
ings of  the  seed. 


504  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PEACTICAL  FARMERS 


2.  Is  the  plant  a  biennial?  The  seed  produces  the  plant  but 
no  flower  the  first  year.  The  roots  withstand  the  w^inter  and 
produces  the  flower  and  seed  the  second  year,  after  which  the 
plant  dies.  Fall  plowing  or  cutting  the  plant  off  below  the  crown 
is  effective. 

3.  Is  the  plant  a  perennial?    This  type  of  plant  blooms  and 


Fig.  238. —  Wild  oats,  showing  the  fruiting  panicle  and  the  root 

system  (X  ^')- 

produces  seed  year  after  year.  The  seed  production  may  be 
controlled  by  mowing.  The  roots,  bulbs  and  underground  stems 
may  be  destroyed  by  fall  plowing  and  continual  cultivation. 

4.  How  does  the  weed  spread?  Are  the  seeds  carried  by  the 
wind,  birds,  animals,  man,  insects  or  water?  Does  the  plant 
spread  by  roots,  runners,  suckers,  or  underground  stems  or  in 
other  ways  ? 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


505 


5.  When  does  the  flower  appear?  This  point  is  important 
because  if  the  flower  is  discovered  before  the  seeds  are  formed 
the  plant  may  be  eradicated  by  spraying,  mowing  or  cultivation. 


Fig.  239. —  Slender  wheat  grass,  showing  root  system  and  single  spike 
(X  3);  plant  (X  i). 

6.  When  does  the  seed  ripen!  If  the  seed  ripens  and  falls 
there  is  little  chance  of  destroying  the  weed  unless  it  is  plowed 
under,  eight  to  ten  inches,  in  the  fall.  This  method  of  control  is 
not  always  satisfactory.  It  is  advisable  to  burn  the  plant  and 
seeds. 


506 


THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  240.— Yellow  foxtail,  entire  plant  (X  J)- 

7.   Last  and  most  important  of  all  the  farmer  wants  to  know 
the  best  method  of  control. 

The  following  methods  are  effective : 
1     Mow  down  the  weeds  before  the  seed  is  ripened. 
2*.    Burn  weeds  which  have  matured  their  seed. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


507 


Fig.  241. —  Three  stages  of  growth  of  the  quack  grass  seedling  (natural 
size)  ;   also  enlarged  drawing  of  the  seed  and  spikelet. 

3.  Plow  ill  the  fall  and  expose  the  root,  bulbs  or  underground 

stem,  or  seed  to  the  elements. 

4.  Practice  crop  rotations. 

5.  Sow  clean  seed  and  persistently  cultivate. 


508  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


6. 


Get  acquainted  with  the  common  weeds  and  be  alert  for  new 
species.  Report  the  weeds  you  are  not  familiar  with  to 
your  experiment  station  or  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  242. 


■Quack  grass,  showing  the  entire  plant  system  both  above  and 
below  the  ground   (X  a )  • 


Pasture  sheep  in  weedy  fields. 

Spray  with  copper  sulphate,  iron  sulphate  or  common  salt  in 

solution  (see  methods  of  control). 
Cooperate  in  the  control  of  weeds  and  see  that  you  follow 

the  laws  of  the  State  and  help  your  neighbor  to  do  the 

same.    Keep  the  roadsides  cut  close. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


609 


F.O.  243.-Witch  gr...    1.  Entire  Plant^^^.  -«ing-,  3. 


seed  natural  size  and 


510  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PKACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fir    244 -Crab  jrrass.     1,  Entire  plant;  2,  enlarged  flower  spike;  3    seedling; 
4,  seedling  somewhat  older;  5,  seed  natural  size  and  enlarged. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

LOSSES  CAUSED  BY  WEEDS 

1.  Weeds  rob  the  plants  of  nutriment. 

2.  Weeds  rob  the  plants  of  water. 


511 


WATER  REQUIREMENT 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.) 

NUMBER     OF     POUNDS     OF     WATER 
THAT    MUST    PASS    THROUGH    A 
PLANT   TO   PRODUCE   ONE   POUND 
OF   DRY   MATTER 

PLANT 

Proso  millet 

203 

261 

323 

Corn    

368 

Wheat 

513 

Barley    

534 

Oats    

597 

770 

Alfalfa 

831 

Pigweed    .  .  . 

287 

336 

608 

683 

Lamb's  quarters  . 

801 

Ragweed  . 

948 

3.  Weeds,  shade,  crowd  and  weaken  cultivated  plants. 

4.  AYeeds  harbor  pests  such  as  insects,  disease,  rabbits,  mice, 
etc. 

5.  Weeds  injure  and  often  kill  stock. 

6.  Weeds  increase  labor,  make  harvesting  difficult  and  detract 
from  the  appearance  of  the  farm. 

7.  Weed  seeds  mixed  with  grain  or  other  seed  always  lowers 
the  price. 

8.  AYeeds  stop  up  drainage  and  often  cause  great  loss. 

FIFTY  WORST  WEEDS* 

Table  I  gives  an  alphabetical  list  of  the  fifty  worst  weeds  of 
the  United  States,  with  such  information  as  will  enable  the 
reader:  (1)  To  identify  them,  (2)  to  determine  the  nature  and 
place  of  their  greatest  injuriousness,  (3)  to  determine  their 
duration  or  natural  length  of  life;  that  is,  whether  annual,  bien- 
nial, or  perennial.  AVith  this  knowledge  one  will  be  able  to  attack 
much  more  intelligently  any  troublesome  weed. 

*  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


512  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  245. — Wild  mustard,  showing  top  of  plant  { X  ^)  >  and  slightly 
enlarged  pod  and  flower. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


513 


Fig.  246.— Eagweed,  showing  top  of  plant   (X  J). 


514     THE 


HANDBOOK  FOB  PRACTICAL  FAKMEBS 


t     2    seedling;    3,  seedling 
F,„.  247.-Buckhorn  plantam.  ^..^^J Se'ani  enlarged. 

somewhat  oiuti  ,  -t, 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


515 


Fig.  248.— 


Sheep  sorrel,  entire  plant  (X  i). 


516     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Descriptive  List  of  the  Fifty  Worst  Weeds  of  the  United  States 
[A  =  annual,  B  =  biennial,  P=perennial] 


COMMON    KAME, 

BOTANICAL    NAME, 

AND  DURATION 

OP    LIFE 


COLOR,  SIZE,  AND 
ARRANGEMENT 
OF  FLOWERS 


SECTIONS 

WHERE 

INJURIOUS 


METHOD   OF 

SEED 

DISTRIBUTION  ; 

VEGETATIVE 

PROPAGATION 

OF    THE 
PERENNIALS 


PLACE    OF 

GROWTH   AND 

PRODUCTS 

INJURED 


Bermuda*  grass,  wire- 
grass  (Capriola  dacty- 
lon),  P. 

Bindweed,  field  bind- 
(Chrysanthemum  leu- 
vensis),  P. 

Bindweed,  wild  morn- 
ing glory  (Convolvu- 
lus sepium),  P. 

Bitterweed,  fennel,  yel- 
low dog  fennel  {HeJe- 
iiium  tenuifoUum),  A. 


Broom     sedge     (Andro- 
pogon  virginicus),  P. 


Buffalo  bur,  sand  bur 
(Solanum  rostratum), 
A. 

Bull  nettle,  horse  net- 
tle (Solanum  caroli- 
nense),  P. 

Bur-grass,  sand  bur 
(Cenchnts  caro  lini- 
anus),  A. 


Chess,  cheat  (Bromus 
aecalinus),  A. 

Chickweed,  common 
chickweed  (Alsine  me- 
dia), A. 


Cocklebur,  clotbur  (.Yo?!- 
thium  americanu m ) ,  A. 


Purple;       1/12 
inch  ;  spikes. 

White  or  pink  ; 

1  inch ;    soli- 
tary. 

White  or  rose  ; 

2  inches  ;  soli- 
tary. 

Yellow  ;  3  inch  ; 
head. 


Green  ;  i  inch 
racemes. 


Yellow  ;  J  inch 
solitary. 


Purple :  1  inch 
solitary. 


Green ;  J  inch 
bur. 


Green ;  spike- 
lets  in  pan 
icles. 

White  ;  i  inch  ; 
cymes. 


Green ;  J  inch 
head. 


Maryland  to 
^lissouri  and 
southward. 

Entire  United 
States,  espe- 
cially Califor- 
nia. 

Mississippi  Val- 
ley region. 


Virginia  to 

Kansas       and 
southward. 


Massachusetts 
to  Michigan, 
Florida,  and 
Texas. 

Illinois  and 

Colorado  to 
Texas. 

Entire  United 
States. 

Maine  to  Flori- 
da and  west- 
ward to  Colo- 
rado. 

All  grain  sec- 
tions. 

Entire  United 
States. 


Entire     United 
States. 


Seeds  sparing- 
ly ;  rootstocks. 

Grain  and  flax 
seeds ;  creep- 
ing roots. 

Grain  and  flax 
seeds ;  root- 
stocks. 

Wind,  hay,  ani- 
mals. 


Wind ;  short 
roots  tocks, 
plants  in  tufts. 

Plants  rolled  by 
wind  ;  seeds  in 
hay  and  by 
animals. 

Plants  rolled  by 
wind  ;  running 
roots. 

Animals,  espe- 
cially sheep. 


Grain  seed  ;  es- 
pecially wheat. 

Grass  and  clov- 
er seed,  ani- 
mals ;  has  a 
long  seeding 
period. 

Carried  by  ani- 


Crab-grass        (Synther 
isma  sanguinale) ,  A. 


Daisy,  oxeye  daisy 
(Chrysnthetnum  leii- 
canthemum),  P. 


Dandelion    (Taraxacum 
officinale),  P. 


Dock,  yellow  dock,  sour 
dock  (Rumex  crispus), 
P. 


Green ;  spikes. 


White  with  yel- 
low center ;  1 
inch  ;   heads. 


Yellow;  IJ 

inch  ;  head. 


Green  ;  i  inch  ; 
panicle. 


Entire  United 
States,  espe- 
cially the 
South. 

Maine  to  Vir- 
ginia and  Ken- 
tucky. 


Entire     United 
States. 


Entire      United 
States. 


Fields  and 

lawns ;       hoed 

crops. 
Rich  moist  soils  ; 

grain  and  hoed 

crops. 

Rich  prairie  and 
river  bottoms  ; 
corn  and  small 
grain. 

Meadows  and 
pastures ;  in- 
.iures  live  stock 
and  taints 

milk. 

Fields  and  waste 
lands  ;  pastures 
and  meadows. 

Fields ;  grain 
and  hoed  crops, 
wool. 

Every  where ; 
grain  and  hoed 
crops,  pastures. 

Sandy  land  pas- 
tures and 
waste  places ; 
pastures  and 
wool. 

E  v  e  r  y  w  here  ; 
grain  fields. 

Meadows, 
lawns  ;  winter 
crops. 


Cultivated  fields 
and  waste 

places ;  hoed 
crops  and  wool. 

Cultivated  fields, 
gardens,  lawns ; 
hoed   crops. 

Pastures,  mead- 
ows, roadsides  ; 
hay,  pasturage. 


Clover  and 

grass         seed, 
hay,  animals. 

Clover  seed, 
hay ;  woody, 
rather  short 
rootstocks,  but 
largely  by  seed. 

Wind  ;  taproot, 
which  spreads 
but  little. 

Hay  and  straw, 
clover  and 
grass  seed; 
taproot,  which 
spreads  but 
little. 

*  The  fact  that  Bermuda  grass  is  often  troublesome  as  a  weed  in  places  where  it  is  not 
desired  is  in  no  way  contradictory  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  valuable  pasture  grass  in 
the  South.  With  proper  rotations  Bermuda  grass  is  rarely  a  serious  weed.  Where  only 
intertilled  crops  are  grown,  such  as  cotton,  Bermuda  grass  perhaps  occasions  more  addi- 
tional cultivation  than  any  other  plant.  For  the  valuable  features  of  Bermuda  grass  consult 
Farmers'  Culletin  814. — C.  V.  Piper. 


Lawns,  mead- 
ows, waste 
places;  hay 
and  lawns. 

Hay,  small  grain 
and  hoed  crops. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


Sll 


Descriptive  List  of  the  Fifty  Worst  Weeds  op  the  United  States — Continued 


COMjrON    NAME, 

BOTANICAL    NAME 

AND   DURATION 

OF    LIFE 


COLOR,  SIZE,  AND 
ARRANGEMENT 
OF  FLOWERS 


SECTIONS 

WHERE 
INJURIOUS 


METHOD   OF 

SEED 

DISTRIBUTION  ; 

VEGETATIVE 

PROPAGATION 

OF   THE 
PERENNIALS 


PLACE    OF 

GROWTH   AND 

PRODUCTS 

INJURED 


Dodder,  alfalfa  dodder, 

field   dodder    (Cuscuta 

arvensis),  A. 
Dogbane,    Indian   hemp 

{Apocynum         canna- 

bium),  1'. 

Fern,  brake  {Pteridium 
aquilinum),  P. 

Fleabane,  horseweed 
(Erigeron  canadensis) , 
A. 

Foxtail,  yellow  foxtail, 
pigeon  grass  (Chae- 
tochloa  glauca),  A. 


Hawkweed,  orange 

hawkweed,  devil's- 

paintbrush  (Hieracium 
autantiacum),  P. 

Ironweed         (Vernonia 
noveboracensis),  P. 


Jirason    weed     (Datura 
stramonium),  A. 


Johnson  grass    (Holcus 
halepensis),  P. 


Lamb's-quarters,  pig- 
weed (Chenopodium 
album),  A. 

Lettuce,  prickly  lettuce 
(Lactuca  virosa),  A. 

Milkweed,  common 

milkweed  (Asclepias 
syriaca),  P. 

Morning-glory  (Ipomea 
hederacea),  A. 


Mustard,  wild  mustard, 
charlock  {Brassica  ar- 
vensis), A. 

Nut-grass,  coco  (Cy- 
perus  rotiindus) ,  P. 


Pennycress,  Frenchweed 
(Thlaspi  arvense),  A. 


Pigweed,  redroot,  care- 
less weed  (Amaran- 
thus  retroflexus),  A. 

Plantain,  bnckhorn,  rib- 
grass  {Plantarjo  lan- 
ceolata),  P. 


Yellow  ;  J  inch  ; 
clusters. 

Greenish  white  : 
i  inch  ;  ter- 
minal clusters. 


White  ;  }  inch  ; 
in  cymes. 


Green ;  spikes. 


Orange ; 1  inch 
heads. 


Purple  ;  J  inch  ; 
heads. 


Purple; 
inches ; 
tary. 


Green  ;  i  inch  ; 
panicle. 


Green ;  very 
small ;  panicle. 

Yellow  ;  J  inch  ; 
heads  in  pani- 
cles. 

Purple  ;  }  inch  ; 
umbels. 

White,  purple, 
or  blue;  1  + 
inch  ;  solitary. 

Y'ellow  ;  J  inch  ; 
racemes. 

P.rown ;  1/16 
inch ;  spike- 
lets. 

White  ;  J  inch  ; 
racemes. 


Green  ;  quite 
small ;  spikes 
in  panicles. 

White ;  1/10 
inch  ;  spike. 


AH    clover    and 


I'pper      Missis- 
sippi Valley. 


Northwestern 
States  and  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Entire  United 
States. 

Entire  United 
States. 


Maine  to  Ohio. 


Maine  to  Mary- 
land and  Iowa 
to  Kansas. 


Maine  to  Min- 
nesota and 
Texas. 


Virginia  to 

Texas  and 

California. 

Entire  United 
States.    . 

Ohio  to  Iowa, 
Utah  to  Cali- 
fornia. 

New  York  to 
Minnesota. 

New  Y'ork  to 
Missouri. 


Maine  to  M'ash- 
ington. 

Maryland  to 
Florida  and 
Texas. 

North  Dakota 
and  Minne- 
sota. 

Entire  United 
States. 


Entire      United 
States. 


Hay,  clover  ai 
alfalfa  seed. 


Wind ;  creeping 
root. 


Spores  scat- 
tered by  wind  ; 
running  roots. 

Hay,  grass,  and 
clover  seeds. 

Animals,  hay, 
grain,  and 
grass  seeds. 


Wind,  grass  and 
clover  seeds ; 
runners  simi- 
lar to  straw- 
berry. 

Wind;  short 
thick  root- 
stocks,  making 
plant  grow  in 
bunches. 

Pods  and  plants 
blown  by 
wind. 


In  hay,  grain, 
and  grass 
seed :  running 
rootstocks. 

Grain  and  grass 
seed. 

Wind. 


Wind  ;  creeping 
roots. 

Corn  stover, 
straw,  and 
wind. 

Grain,  grass, 
clover,  and 
rape  seeds. 

Wind,  nursery 
stock,  hay, 
and  grass 
seed  ;  tubers. 

Wind. 


In     grain     and 

grass      seeds ; 

plants     blown 

by  wind. 
Hay,  clover  and 

grass    seed  ; 

spreads      but 

slowly  from  a 

crown. 


Clover  and  al- 
falfa fields. 

Fields  with 
sandy  soil; 
pasture,  grain 
and  hoed  crops. 

Logged-oflf  land, 
meadows,  and 
pastures. 

Jleadows,  pas- 
t  u  r  e  s  ,  and 
grain  fields. 

Land  cultivated 
in  early  part 
of  season; 
young  grass 
and  clover 
seedlings. 

Untillable  pas- 
t  u  r  e  s  and 
meadows. 


Pastures        and 
meadows. 


Pastures,  barn- 
yards, and 
waste  lands ; 
seeds,  flowers, 
and  leaves 
poisonous. 

All  crops  except 
hay. 


Grain  fields  and 
hoed  crops. 

Everywhere  ;  all 
crops. 

All  crops  and  in 
pastures. 

C  ul  tivated 

fields,  espe- 
cially corn,  and 
small  grain. 

Small  grain 
fields  and  mead- 
ows ;  grains. 

All  soils ;  hoed 
crops. 


Grain  fields  and 
pastures  ;  grain 
and  dairy  pro- 
ducts. 

Plowed  land; 
hoed  crops. 


Everywhere; 
meadows,  pas- 
t  u  r  e  s,  and 
lawns. 


518     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Descriptive  List  of  the  Fifty  Worst  Weeds  op  the  United  States — Continued 


COMMON    NAMK. 

BOTANICAL    NAME, 

AND   DURATION 

OF    LIFE 


COLOR,  SIZE,  AND 
ARRANGEMENT 
OP  FLOWERS 


SECTIONS 

WHERE 
INJURIOUS 


METHOD   OF 
SEED 

distribution  ; 
vegetati\t: 
propagation 

OF  THE 
PERENNIALS 


PLACE  OP 

GROWTH  AND 

PRODUCTS 

INJURED 


Poison  ivy,  poison  oalc 
(Rhus  toxicodendron), 


Purslane,  pusley    (Por- 
tulaca  oleracea),  A. 


Quack-grass,witch-grass 
(Agropyron  repena ) , 
P. 

Ragweed,  smaller  rag- 
weed {Aml>rosia  ela- 
tior),A. 


Russian  thistle,  tumble- 
weed  {Salsola  pesti- 
fer),  A. 

St.-John's-wort  {Eyper- 
icum   perforatum),   P. 

Smartweed  (Polygonum 
pennsylvanicum),    A. 


Smartweed,  marsh 
smartweed,  devil's- 
shoestrlng  (Polygonum 
muhlenbergii) ,  A. 

Sorrel,  sheep  sorrel, 
horse  sorrel  (Rumex 
acetosella),  P. 

Sow  thistle,  perennial 
sow  thistle,  field  sow 
thistle  ( Sonch  us  ar- 
vensis),  P. 

Squirreltail  grass, 
squirrel  grass,  foxtail, 
wild  barley  (Hordeum 
jubatum),  A. 

Thistle,  Canada  thistle 
(Cirsium  arvense),  P. 


Thistle,  common  thistle, 
bull  thistle  (Cirsium 
lanceolatum),  B. 

Wild  carrot  (Daucus 
car Ota),  B. 


Wild     oats     {Avenafa- 
tua).  A, 

Wild  onion,  garlic  {Al- 
litim  vineale),  P. 


Greenish  white  ; 
i  inch ;  pani- 
cles. 

Yellow  ;  J  inch  ; 
solitary. 


Green  ;  spike. 


Yellow  ;  i  inch  ; 
small  heads  on 
spikes. 


Purplish ;  J 

inch  ;  solitary. 


Yellow  ;  3  inch  ; 
cymes. 

Light  rose 
1/16  inch 
racemes. 

Rose  color 
1/16  inch 
spikes. 


Red ;     J     inch 
panicles. 


Yellow  ;  i  inch 
heads. 


Green ;  spike 
with  long 
bristly  glumes. 


Purple,  i  inch 


Reddish    p  u  r  - 
pie ;    1    inch  ; 

heads. 

White;    very 
small ;  umbels. 


Green ;  pani- 
cles ;  similar 
to  oats. 

Flowers  rare : 
umbels  with 
bulblets. 


Winter     cress,     yellow    Yellow  ;  i  inch  ; 


rocket    (Barharea  i 
garia),  P. 


Entire     United 

States. 


Entire     United 
States. 


Maine  to  Penn- 
sylvania and 
Minnesota. 

Entire  United 
States. 


Minnesota  to 
Washington 
and  south- 
ward. 

Maine  to  North 
Carolina  and 
Iowa. 

Maine  to  Min- 
nesota, Flor- 
i  d  a ,  and 
Texas. 

Indiana  to 
Iowa. 


Entire     United 
States. 


Maine    to    Min- 
nesota. 


Minnesota  to 
Texas  and 
California. 


Maine  to  Penn- 
sylvania and 
Washington. 


Maine  to  Vir- 
ginia and 
Washington. 

Maine  and  Vir- 
ginia to  the 
Mississippi. 


Wisconsin  to 
Washington. 

Rhode  Island  to 
Georgia  and 
west  to  Mis- 
souri. 

:Maine  to  Vir- 
g  i  n  i  a  and 
westward. 


Does  not  spread 
fast  by  seeds  ; 
running  root- 
stocks. 

Tillage  imple- 
ments ;  has  a 
long  seeding 
period. 

Seeds  of  grain 
and  coarse 
grasses ;  creep- 
ing rootstocks. 

Wind  carrying 
matured 
plants;  in 
grain  and  red- 
clover  seeds. 

Wind  rolling 
matured 
plants. 

In   hay    and 

grass    seed  ; 

rootstocks. 
Wind     carrying 

matured 

plants. 

Wind  and  farm 
m  a  chin  ery  ; 
rootstocks. 


In  clover  seed  ; 
creeping  roots. 


Wind  ;    running 
rootstocks. 


Hay,     animals, 
wind. 


Wind,  in  hay 
and  straw  and 
in  clover  and 
grass  seed  ; 
creeping  roots. 

Wind,  in  al- 
falfa, clover, 
and  grass 
seeds. 

In  foreign  clov- 
er and  alfalfa 
seed ;  carried 
by  animals 
and  wind. 

In  seed  oats. 


Seeds  rare ; 
bulblets  car- 
ried in  wheat ; 
underground 
bulbs. 

In  grain,  clov- 
er, and  grass 
seeds. 


Moist  rich  land, 

along     fences ; 

poisonous       by 

contact. 
Rich    cultivated 

land,  especially 

gardens  ;    hoed 

crops. 
All  crops  on  the 

better   soils; 

hoed  crops. 

Everywhere,  es- 
pecially grain 
stubble ;  hoed 
crops  and 
young  grass 
seeding. 

Everywhere ; 
small  grain  and 
hoed  crops. 

Meadows,  pas- 
tures,  and 
waste  places. 

Moist  rich  soils ; 
hoed  crops 
and  young 
grass  seedings. 

Wet  land,  prai- 
rie, and  muck 
soils;  hoed 
crops,  hay,  pas- 
ture. 

Meadows  and 
pastures. 

Grain  fields  and 
hoed  crops. 


Meadows  and 
pastures; 
barbed  seeds 
produce  sores 
on    live    stock. 

All  crops. 


Pastures, -mead- 
ows, and  Min- 
ter  wheat. 

Meadows  and 
pastures. 


Oat  fields ;  awns 
injurious  to 
stock. 

E  verywhere : 
wheat  and 
dairy  products. 


Grain  fields, 
pastures,  and 
meadows. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


519 


Fig.  249.-Burdock    showing  top  of  plant  with  burs   (X  J)  • 
also  laree  basal  loof  ^   yy\  3i  , 


large  basal  leaf. 


520  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL 


FARMERS 


Pio.250.-B]ue  vervain.    1,  Top  of  pi 


ant;  2,  seed  natural  si^e  and  enlarged. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


521 


Fk!.  -if)  1.— Curled  dock,  showing  a  separate  leaf  and 
root  (X  i). 


522  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PEACTICAL  FAEMEBS 


Pxo.  252._Shepherd.s  purse,  entire  plant  ,x  J,   and  .„  enlarged 


pod   (X  3). 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Methods  op  Control 


523 


COMMON  NAME 

TIME  OF 
FLOWERING 

SEED  TIJIE 

CONTROL 

Bermuda  grass 

July  to  August 

August  to 

September 

Fall  plowing  (shallow), 
smother  out  by  cropping 
land  with  squash,  cow- 
peas,  etc. 

Bindweed  (field) 

June  to 

September 

August  to 

October 

Fall  cultivation.  Sow 
clean  seed.  Smother  by 
cropping  infected  land. 
Pasture  sheep. 

Bindweed  (wild 
morning-glory) 

June  to  August 

July  to  October 

Keep  cut  back.  Control 
same  as  Field  Bindweed. 

Bitterweed 

June  to  August 

July  to 

September 

Destroy  before  seed  ripens. 

Broom  sedge 

July  and 

September  to 

October 

Cultivate.  Mow  before 
seeding.  Burn  mature 
plants  and  so  destroy 
the  seeds. 

Buffalo  bur 

May  to 

September 

July  to 

November 

Cut  before  seed  ripens. 
Smother  out  by  seeding 
heavily. 

Bull  nettle 

]\Iay  to 

September 

June  to 

November 

Continual  cutting.  Cut- 
ting below  tlie  surface 
will  starve  the  roots  and 
prevent  the  development 
of  seed. 

Bur-grass 

June  and  July 

July  to 

September 

Burn  mature  plants.  Cul- 
tivate. 

Chess 
Cheat 

Jime  to  July 

July  to  August 

Hand  pulling.  Cultivation 
in  fall.  Plow  under. 
Plant  clean  seed. 

Chickweed 

Spring  until 

frost 

Throughout 

the  year 

Cultivation.  Spray  iron 
sulphate. 

Cocklebur 
Clotbur 

July  to 

Septem])er 

September  to 

November 

Pull  or  cut  before  the  burs 
are  formed.  Spray,  iron 
or  copper  sulphate. 

Crab-grass 

July  to 

September 

August  to 

October 

Cultivation.  Fall  plowing. 
Hand  pulling.  Prevent 
seeding. 

Daisy 

May  to  October 

June  to 

November 

Rotation  of  hoe  crops. 
Prevent  seeding.  Sow 
clean   seed. 

Dandelion 

Spring  until  fall 

May  to 

November 

Cut  below  cro\vn.  Fall 
plowing  ( shallow ) . 
Spray,  copper  or  iron 
sulphate. 

Yellow  dock 

June  to 

September 

July  to  October 

Deep  cultivation.  Cut  be- 
low the  crown.  Prevent 
seeding. 

524  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  253. — Lamb's  quarters,  showing  top  of  plant  and  root  system  (X  ^)' 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Methods  of  Control — Continued 


525 


COMMON  NAME 

TIME  OF 
FLO\VERING 

SEED  TIME 

CONTROL 

Dodder 

July  to 

September 

August  to 

October 

Plant  clean  seed.  Spray, 
iron  sulphate.  Cover  in- 
fected area  with  straw 
and  burn. 

Dogbane 

June  and  July         August  to 

October 

Keep  cut.  Cultivate  in 
summer.  Strong  salt 
brine. 

Spores  ripe 

in     August 

Cut  close  to  ground  in 
June.  Cultivate  and 
lime  the  soil. 

Fleabane 

June  to  October 

August  to 

November 

Cultivate  land  with  hoed 
crops.  Cut  close  to  sur- 
face.    Hand  pulling. 

Foxtail 

July  and  August 

August  and 

September 

Fall  plowing  (shallow). 
Sow  clean  seed.  Pasture 
sheep. 

Hawkweed 

June  to 

September 

July  to  October 

Shallow  cultivation.  Fall 
plowing.  Keep  cut  close 
to  surface.  Dry  salt 
treatment. 

Iron  weed 

July  and  August 

September 

and  October 

Cultivate.  Plant  hoed 
crops.  Keep  cut  back. 
Prevent  the  seed  from 
ripening. 

Jimson  weed 

Prevent  seeding. 

Johnson  grass 

June  to  July 

August  to 

September 

Prevent  bloom.  Pasture 
sheep  or  cattle.  Culti- 
vate when  possible.  Fall 
plowing  ( shallow ) . 

Lamb's  quarters 

June  to 

September 

August  to 

November 

Cultivate  throughout  the 
season.     Hand  pulling. 

Lettuce 

July  to  October 

August  to 

November 

Cut  oflf  below  the  crown. 
Prevent  seeding.  Pas- 
ture sheep. 

Milkweed 

June  to  August 

August  to 

October 

Cut  before  seed  ripens. 
Smother  out  by  crop- 
ping. 

Morning-glory 

May  to 

September 

July  to  October 

Prevent  seeding.  Keep 
cut  close  to  surface. 
Cultivate. 

Mustard 

IMay  to 

September 

June  to  October 

Spray  iron  or  copper  sul- 
phate before  the  grains 
head.  Shallow  cultiva- 
tion. Graze  sheep.  Hand 
pulling  in  the  garden. 

526  THE  handbook:  FOE  PBACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  254. — Russian  thistle,  showing  branch  of  young  plant  (X  i)  in  the 
center,  one  of  a  mature  plant  (X  J)  at  the  right,  and  a  small  draw- 
ing of  the  entire  plant  (X  1-15)   showing  general  shape  at  the  left. 


I 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

Methods  of  Control — Continued 


527 


COMMON  NAME 

TIME  OF 
FLOWERING 

SEED  TIME 

CONTROL 

Nut-grass 

July  to 

September 

August  to 

November 

Sow  clean  seed.  Prevent 
.seed  ripening.  Culti- 
vate late.  Smother  out 
by  cropping. 

Pennycress 

June  to 

September 

June  to 

September 

Burn  seeded  plants.  Cul- 
tivate. 

Pigweed 

July  to 

September 

August  to 

November 

Cut  off  below  surface  soil. 
Prevent  seedage.  Spray, 
copper  or  iron  sulphate. 

Plantain 

April  to  October 

May  to 

November 

Cut  off  below  crown.  Plant 
hoed  crops.  Plow  in  the 
fall. 

Poison  ivy 

]May  to  July 

Ripe  in 

September 

Dig  out  as  much  of  the 
roots  as  possible.  Pour 
caustic  soda  on  roots. 

Purslane 

June  until  frost 

July  to 

November 

Cultivate.  Prevent  seed- 
age. 

Quack  grass 

June 

July  to  August 

Fall  plowing.  Pasture 
sheep.  Prevent  seeding. 
Deep  cult  i  vat  ion  through- 
out summer.  Plant  such 
crops  as  squash  and 
smother  out.  Gather 
roots  by  hand  while 
spading  the  garden. 

Ragweed 

July  to 

September 

August  to 

November 

Spray,  iron  or  copper  sul- 
phate. Prevent  seedage. 
Cultivate  when  plants 
are  small. 

Russian  thistle 

July  to 

September 

Seed  ripe 

in  October 

Prevent  seedage.  Plant 
clean  seed.  Cultivate. 
Plant  hoed  crops.  If 
plant  seeds,  burn. 

St.  John's-wort 

July  to 

September 

July  to  October 

Cut  close  to  surface.  Pre- 
vent flowering. 

Smartweed 

July  to  October 

August  to 

November 

Prevent  seedage.  Culti- 
vate wlien  plants  are 
young. 

Sorrel 

:\Iay  to 

September 

June  to 

November 

Keep  cut  close.  Prevent 
seed  production.  Culti- 
vate. 

Sow  thistle 

June  to  August 

July  to 

September 

Fall  plowing.  Plant  in- 
fected fields  to  hoed 
crops.     Prevent  seeding. 

Squirrel  tail  grass 

July  to 

September 

June  and  August 

Prevent  seedage.  Culti- 
vate.    Pull  by  hand. 

528  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig.  255. —  Mallow.     1,  Top  of  plant;  2,  seedling;  3,  seedling  somewhat  older; 
4,  separate  fruit;  5,  seed  enlarged. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


529 


Fig.  256. —  Prickly  lettuce.  1,  Section  of  plant  showing  leaf  arrangement; 
2,  top  of  plant;  3,  seedling;  4,  seedling  somewhat  older;  5,  seed  natural 
size  and  enlarged. 


530  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fig,  257. —  White  cockle,  showing  top  of  plant  and  root  system,  also  a 
separate  flower  and  mature  pod. 


WEEDS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


531 


Fig.  258. —  Purslane.     1,  Entire  plant;  2,  seedling;  .",  seed  natural  size  and 
enlarged. 


532  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Meitiods  of  Coj^TROh^Continued 


COMMON  NAME 

TIME  OF 
FLOWERING 

SEED  TIME 

CONTROL 

Canada  thistle 

June  and  August 

July  to 

September 

Fall  plowing.  Cultivate. 
Prevent  seedage. 

Bull  thistle 

July  to  October 

August  to 

November 

Cut  off  below  crown.  Pre- 
vent seedage.  Keep 
mowed  close. 

Wild  carrot 

June  to 

September 

August  to 

November 

Prevent  seedage.  Cut  be- 
low crown.  Plant  hoed 
crops.     Hand  pull. 

Wild  oats 

July 

July  to  August 

Plow  deeply.  Plant  hoed 
crops. 

W^ild  onion 

June 

Fall  plowing  ( deep) .  Plant 
hoed  crops  and  lime  the 
soil.     Hand  pull. 

Winter  cress 

April  to  June 

June  to  August 

Cultivate  early  in  the 
spring.  Prevent  seed- 
age. 

112  lbs.  copper  sulphate  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
100  lbs.  iron  sulphate  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
125  lbs.  salt  to  50  gallons  of  water. 
Many  of  the  dates  for  the  period  of  bloom  and  seedage  are  taken  from  Manual  of 
Weeds,  by  Ada  Georgia,  Macmillan  Co. 


CHAPTER   XXXVII 

STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AXD  MEASURES  AND  OTHER  VALUABLE 
INFORMATION* 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


TKOr  WEIGHT 

24  grains    1  pwt. 

20  pwt 1  ounce 

12  ounces    1  pound 

Used  for  weighing  gold,  silver  and  jewels 
apothecaries'  weight 

20  grains    1  scruple 

3  scrnples 1  dram 

8  drams    1  ounce 

12  ounces 1  pound 

The  ounce  and  pound  In  this  are  the  same 
as  in  Troy  Weight. 

AVOIRDUPOIS    weight 

27  11/32  grains 1  dram 

16  drams   1  ounce 

16  ounces    1  pound 

25  pounds    1  quarter 

4  quarters    1  cwt. 

2,000  pounds 1  short   ton 

2,240  pounds 1  long  ton 

DRY  measure 

2  pints    1  quart 

8  quarts 1  peck 

4  pecks   1  hushel 

36  bushels    1  chaldron 

LIQUID    measure 

4    gills   1  pint 

2    pints    1  quart 

4    quarts    1  gallon 

31 J  gallons 1  barrel 

2    barrels 1  hogshead 

time   measure 

60  seconds    1  minute 

60  minutes   1  hour 

24  hours     1  da.v 

7  days     1  week 

28,  29,  30,  or  31  days.  .  .    1  calendar  month 
(30   days,   1   month   in   computing  interest.) 

3G5  days    1  year 

366  days    ; 1  leap  year 

CIRCULAR    measure 

00  seconds    1  minute 

60  minutes   1  degree 

30  degrees    1  sign 

90  degrees    1  quadrant 

4  quadrants,  12  signs,  or 

360  degrees   1  circle 

mariner's  measure 

6    feet   1  fathom 

120    fathoms    1  cable   length 

7i  cable  lengths 1  mile 

5.280    feet   1  statute   mile 

6,085    feet    1  nautical    mile 


LONG    measure 


12    inches    . 

3    feet    .  .  . 

5 J  yards  .  . 
40    rods    . .  . 

8    furlongs 


1  foot 

1  yard 

1  rod 

1  furlong 

1  statute  mile 


3    miles    j  leag 


CLOTH    MEASURE 

2J  inches    i  nail 

;*    "ail«    1  quarter 

4    quarters    i  yard 


PAPER    MEASURE 


24  sheets 
20  quires 


1  quire 

1  ream    (480 

sheets) 

2  reams    i  bundle 

5  bundles    i  bale 

MISCELLANEOUS 

3  inches    i  palm 

i      inches    i  hand 

,«      inches    i  span 

18      inches    i  cubit 

21 . 8  inches    i  Rible  cubit 

-  ■  o  feet    1  military  pa< 

SQUARE     MEASURE 

144    square  inches 1  square  foot 

9    square  feet l  square  yard 

30} square  yards    l  square  rod 

40    square  rods 1  rood 

■i    roods    1  acre 

040    acres i  square  mile 


surveyor's  measure 

7.92  inches    1  link 

25        links    i  rod 

4        rods    1  chain 

10        sq.    chains   or    160 

sq.  rods 1  acre 

640        acres    l  square 

36        sq.  miles    (6  miles 

square)    1  township 


ile 


CUBIC  measure 


1,728 

27 
128 
40 


cubic  inches   1  cubic  foot 

cubic  feet 1  cubic  yard 

cubic  feet 1  cord    (wood) 

cubic  feet 1  ton    (shipping) 

2,150.42  cubic  inches    1  standard  bushel 

2G.S.8    cubic  inches    1  standard  gallon 

1         cubic  foot    About    4/5    of    a 

bushel 


Courtesy  of  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company. 

533 


534  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Weights  for  barn  use.—  Frequently  the  farmer  wishes  to  feed 
a  given  weight  of  this,  that  or  the  other  stuff  and  has  no  scales 
at  hand  to  weigh  it.  If  he  has  a  quart  measure  handy,  he  can 
use  it  to  measure  out  the  required  weight.  The  quart  weight  of 
various  feeds  is  as  follows : 

Cottonseed  meal  1.5  pounds;  linseed  meal,  old  process,  1.1 
pounds ;  gluten  meal,  1.7  pounds ;  gluten  feed,  1.2  pounds ;  wheat 
bran,  coarse,  .5  pound;  wheat  middlings,  coarse,  .8  pound  and 
fine,  1.1  pounds;  mixed  wheat  feed,  .6  pound;  cornmeal,  1.5 
pounds ;  oats,  1.2  pounds ;  rye  bran,  .6  pound ;  H.  0.  dairy  feed, 
.7  pound,  and  Victor  corn  feed,  .7  pound  per  quart. 

Miscellaneous  estimates. —  From  seven  to  twelve  bushels  of 
apples  are  required  for  a  barrel  of  cider. 

A  bushel  of  average  apples  gives  from  six  to  seven  pounds  of 
evaporated  product. 

Raspberries  contain  from  one  and  one-half  to  three  pounds  of 
seed  to  the  bushel. 

A  pint  of  garden  blackberries  weighs  about  one  pound. 

Good  clusters  of  American  grapes  weigh  on  an  average  from 
one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  pound,  while  extra  good  clusters 
will  reach  a  pound  and  a  half.  Clusters  have  been  reported 
which  weighed  two  pounds. 

A  bushel  of  sweet  corn  ears,  "in  the  milk,"  with  the  husks 
which  come  from  it,  weighs  from  fifty  to  seventy  pounds. 

There  are  about  five  thousand  honey  bees  in  a  pound. 

Measuring  in  bulk. —  Two  cubic  feet  of  sound,  dry  corn  in  the 
ear  will  make  a  bushel  shelled.  To  get  the  quantity  of  shelled 
corn  in  a  crib  of  corn  in  the  ear,  measure  the  length,  breadth  and 
height  of  the  crib,  inside  of  the  rail ;  multiply  the  length  by  the 
breadth,  and  the  product  by  the  height ;  then  divide  the  product 
by  two,  and  you  have  the  number  of  bushels  in  the  crib. 

To  find  out  the  number  of  bushels  of  apples,  potatoes,  etc.,  in 
a  bin,  multiply  the  length,  breadth  and  thickness  together,  and 
this  product  by  eight,  and  point  one  figure  in  the  product  for 
decimals.  To  find  the  amount  of  hay  in  a  mow,  allow  five  hun- 
dred and  twelve  cubic  feet  for  a  ton,  and  it  w^ll  come  out  very 
near  correct. 

Practical  measurement  of  land. —  To  find  the  number  of  acres 
in  any  rectangular  piece  of  land,  multiply  the  length  and  breadth 
in  rods  together,  and  divide  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  (the 
number  of  square  rods  in  an  acre),  and  the  result  will  be  the 
required  answer. 

When  one  side  and  perpendicular  to  that  side  from  the  oppo- 


STANDAKD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES         535 

site  angle  are  given,  take  one-half  the  product  of  the  side  and 
perpendicular,  and  divide  by  one  hundred  and  sixty. 

When  three  sides  are  given,  from  half  the  sum  of  the  three 
sides  subtract  each  side  separately;  multiply  the  half  sum  and 
the  three  remainders  together;  the  square  root  of  the  product 
divided  by  one  hundred  and  sixty  will  give  the  number  of  acres 
in  the  field. 

AVhen  the  piece  of  land  is  in  the  shape  of  a  trapezoid,  take 
one-half  the  product  of  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  and  the 
perpendicular  between  those  sides,  and  divide  by  one  hundred 
and  sixty. 

To  find  the  area  of  any  straight-sided  piece  of  land,  divide  the 
latter  into  convenient  parts,  find  the  area  of  every  part,  and  the 
sum  mil  be  the  area  of  the  field. 

In  general,  the  parts  into  which  the  field  can  be  most  conven- 
iently divided  will  be  triangles,  but  in  some  cases  we  may  have  a 
rectangle  or  a  trapezoid,  whose  areas  may  be  found  by  the  pre- 
ceding rules.  The  area  of  a  right-angle  triangle  equals  one-half 
the  product  of  the  two  short  sides. 

To  ascertain  the  weight  of  cattle. —  Measure  the  girth  close 
behind  the  shoulder,  and  the  length  from  the  fore  part  of  the 
should(?r  blade  along  the  back  to  the  bone  at  the  tail,  which  is 
in  a  vertical  line  with  the  buttock,  both  in  feet.  Multiply  the 
square  of  the  girth,  expressed  in  feet,  by  five  times  the  length, 
and  divide  the  product  by  twenty-one ;  the  quotient  is  the  weight, 
nearly,  of  the  four  quarters,  in  imperial  stones  of  fourteen 
pounds  avoirdupois.  For  example,  if  the  girth  l)e  seven  feet,  and 
the  length  five  and  one-quarter  feet,  we  shall  have  6x6  —  36 
and  51/4x5  —  261/4;  then  36x2614  —  945,  and  this  divided  by 
twenty  gives  forty-five  stones  exactly.  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  in  very  fat  cattle  the  four  quarters  will  be  aliout  one- 
twentieth  more,  while  in  those  in  a  very  lean  state  they  will  be 
one-twentieth  less  than  the  weight  obtained  by  the  rule. 

Rule  for  measuring:  corn. —  A  heaped  busliel  contains  2,748 
cubic  inches.  To  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  corn  in  a  crib 
it  is  therefore  necessary  merely  to  multiply  together  the  length, 
width  and  height  in  inches  and  divide  the  product  by  2,748.  The 
number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn  will  be  two-thirds  of  the  quo- 
tient. If  the  sides  of  the  crib  are  slanting,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  multiply  together  one-half  the  sum  of  the  top  and  bottom 
widths,  the  height  and  length. 

Rule  for  estimating  hay. —  Hay  is  often  sold  in  the  mow  or 
stack  where  the  weight  has  to  be  estimated.    For  this  purpose 


536  THE  HANDBOOK  FOE  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

four  hundred  cubic  feet  of  hay  is  considered  a  ton.    The  actual 

weight  of  four  hundred  cubic  feet  of  hay  will  vary  according  to 

the  quality  of  the  hay,  time  of  cutting,  position  in  the  mow,  etc. 

For  making  an  estimate  in  a  given  case  multiply  together  the 

length,  breadth  and  height  of  the  mow  or  stack  in  feet  and  divide 

the  product  by  four  hundred.    The  quotient  will  be  the  number 

of  tons. 

Convenient  Land  Measures 


10  rods  by  16  rods    1  acre 

8  rods  by  20  rods    1  acre 

5  rods  by  32  rods    1  acre 

4  rods  by  40  rods    1  acre 

•    5  yards  by  968  yards    1  acre 

10  yards  by  484  yards    1  acre 

20  yards  by  242  yards    1  acre 


40  yards  by  121  yards    1  acre 

220  feet  by  198      feet    1  acre 

110  feet  by  396      feet    1  acre 

60  feet  by  726      feet   1  acre 

120  feet  by  363      feet .  1  acre 

300  feet  by  145.2  feet    1  acre 

400  feet  by  108 . 9  feet    1  acre 


Amount  of  Barbed  Wire  Required  for  Fences 
Based  upon  each  pound  measuring  one  rod 


1   square  acre    

1   square  mile   

1  side  of  square  mile 

1  rod  in  length 

100  rods   

100  feet    


50  2/3 

1.280 

320 

1 

100 


lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb. 

lbs. 


1/16  lbs. 


TWO   LINES 


1011/2  lbs. 

2,564      lbs. 

640      lbs. 

2      lbs. 

200      lbs. 

12V'  lbs. 


THREE  LINES 


152  lbs 

3,840  lbs, 

960  lbs, 

3  lbs 

300  lbs 

18  3/16  lbs 


Custom 

ARY  Weights 

per  Bushel  of  Seeds 

KIND  OF  seed 

POUNDS 

per 

BUSHEL 

KIND  OF  SEED 

POUNDS 
PER 

BUSHEL 

Alfalfa               

60 
45-60 

15 

15 
15 
60 
60 

14-20 
14-30 

14 
50-60 
10-14 
45-60 

60 

8-10 

60 

46-60 

Clover: 

Alsike   

Crimson    

Amber  cane                  

60 

Bent  grass: 

60 
60 

Rhode  Island    

Bermuda  grass   

Bird's-foot  clover 

Mammoth     

Red    

White   

Cowpea  

Crested  dog's  tail 

Fescue : 

Hard   

Meadow 

Red    

60 

60 

60 
56-60 
14-30 

Blue  grass: 

Canada                        

TTpntiirkv 

12-16 

Broad  bean                

14-24 

Brome    awnless                .  .  . 

12-15 

Sheep's    

16 

Bur  clover: 

Hulled  .            

Tall    

Various  leaved   

Flat  pea  

14-24 
15 

TTnbulled 

50-60 

Flax 

48-56 

Castor  bean  

1  Hemp 

40-60 

STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


537 


Customary  Weights  per  Bushel  of  Seeds  —  Continued 


KIND   OF   SEED 

POUNDS 

PER 
BUSHEL 

KIND  OF   SEED 

POUNDS 

PER 
BUSHEL 

Japan  clover: 

Hulled 

60 

18-25 
14-28 
50-60 

60 
50-60 

7-14 

11-14 
14-20 
14-24 

30-60 
45-60 
48-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-50 
48-56 
50-60 

10-14 

7-14 

45-60 

10-18 

60 
60 
56 

Peanut    

Rape,  winter 

20-30 
50-60 

Unhulled  . 

Redtop: 

Chaff  

Fancy   

Rescue  grass  

Rice  

Rye  grass: 

"English   

Italian 

Johnson  grass  

10-14 

Lentil    

19    9S 

Lupine,  white 

43  45 

Meadow  fo.xtail 

Meadow  grass: 

Fowl    

28 
12 

Rough-stalked 

Wood  . 

14-32 

Scrradelia 

28  36 

Millet: 

58  60 

Barnyard   

Broom  corn   .                 ... 

Spelt    . 

40-60 

Sunflower 

24-50 

Common    

German 

Sweet  clover: 
Hulled 

60 

Grolden   \\'onder    

Unhulled 

33 

Sweet    corn    (according   to 

Pearl   

36-56 

Alilo  maize 

Sweet  vernal,  perennial   .  . 

Teosinte    

Timothy   

Velvet  bean   

Vetch : 
Hairy 

6   15 

Oat  grass: 

Tall    

Yellow    

40-60 
45 
60 

Orchard  grass  

50-60 

Pea: 

Field    

Spring 

Water  grass,  large 

Wild  rice 

60 
14 

15-28 

60 

Leoal  Weights  of  Various  Commoditie 
j\Iinimuni  weight  by  U.  S.  Statute 


Apples,  dried 

Barley  

Beans,  castor    

Beans,  white 

Bluegrass  seed    

Bran    

Buckwheat 

Clover  seed    

Coal 

Corn,  .shelled 

Corn,  in  the  ear 

Corn  meal   

Flaxseed  

Hair,  plastering  .... 

Hemp  seed   

Hungarian  grass  seed 


POUNDS 

POUNDS 

PER              1 

PER 

BUSHEL 

BUSHEL 

26 

Lime,  un.slaked   

30 

48 

-Malt    

38 

46 

Millet  seed 

50 

60 

Oats  ..        .                   .... 

32 

44 

57 

20 

Peaches,  dried    

3 

48 

Peas    

60 

60 

Peas,  ground,  pea  meal.  .  . 

42 

SO 

Potatoes,  Irish 

60 

56 

Potatoes,  sweet 

55 

70 

Rve    • 

56 

48 

Salt,  fine 

167 

56 

Salt,  coarse  

151 

8 

Timothv  seed 

46 

44 

55 

50 

^^^leat 

60 

538  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Fruit  Packages 
Sizes  and  weights  of  packages  for  deciduous  fruits   (California  Fruit  Distributors) 


Cherries    

Peaches  

Pears  

Pears  for  export  to  Europe. 

Prunes    

Apricots    

Nectarines   

Plums   

Grapes    

Grapes    


11  pounds  per  box. 
21%  pounds  per  box. 
50  pounds  per  box. 

24  pounds  per  box. 

26  pounds  per  single  crate. 
26  pounds  per  single  crate. 

25  pounds  per  single  crate. 

26  pounds  per  single  crate. 
26  pounds  per  single  crate. 
56  pounds  per  double  crate. 


In  Inches 


DEPTH 

WIDTH 

LENGTH 

2% 

5 

fl 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
111/4 

9 

11% 
11% 
11% 

16 
16 
16 
16 
16 
16 

\9% 
1934 

19% 
19% 
171/2 
171/2 
17i/> 

Peaches,  box                                        .... 

Pears    box                                                .  . 

Pears,  for  export  to  Europe,  box.  .  .  . 

Nectarines    single  crate                       .  . 

Plums    single  crate.        

17i/> 

Grapes    single  crate                              .  . 

171/^ 

171/2 

Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  grape  figures. —  The  grapes  are  sliipped 
in  eight-pound  Climax  baskets,  which  weigh,  when  not  filled, 
twenty  ounces.  A  carload  is  two  thousand  eight  hundred  to 
three  thousand  baskets.  A  girl  mil  pack  from  one  hundred  to 
one  hundred  and  fifty  baskets  per  day.  One  and  one-fourth  cents 
per  basket  is  paid  for  picking  and  packing.  An  average  acre  of 
Concord  grapes  yields  about  five  hundred  baskets.  The  average 
annual  cost  of  cultivating  the  vineyard  up  to  picking  time  is 
eight  dollars.  The  expense  of  picking,  packing,  packages,  and 
carting  is  about  twenty-eight  dollars  for  the  five  hundred 
baskets.  In  bulk  the  grapes  are  shipped  in  crates  of  thirty-eight 
pound  capacity ;  cost  of  picking  in  crates  is  about  two  cents  for 
quantity  representing  two  and  one-half  baskets.  The  bunches 
are  cut  from  the  vines  ^^dth  shears  made  for  the  purpose.  In  the 
packing  house  the  bunches  are  trimmed. 

Citrus  fruits. —  The  specifications  of  the  boxes  used  in  the 
packing  of  California  oranges  are  shown  in  the  railroad  tariffs 
with  an  estimated  weight,  and  the  box  so  shown  is  the  only  one 
used.    The  inside  dimensions  are  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  539 

eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  twenty-four  inches,  the  slats  are 
twenty-six  inches  long,  but  the  thickness  of  the  ends  and  center- 
pieces is  two  inches,  making  the  inside  length  twenty-four  inches. 
No.  2  Jumbo  orange  box,  eleven  and  one-half  inches  by  twelve 
and  one-half  inches  by  twentj'-four  inches. 

The  California  box  for  lemons  shown  in  the  tariff  is  ten 
and  one-half  inches  by  fourteen  inches  by  twenty-five  inches. 
Recently  the  lemon  shippers  adopted  a  new-sized  box  which  packs 
lemons  to  better  advantage,  and  this  new  box  will  be  used  as 
soon  as  the  accumulation  of  old  stock  is  exhausted,  and  the 
tariffs  will  be  changed  to  show  its  dimensions,  which  are  ten 
and  three-eighths  inches  by  thirteen  and  one-half  inches  by 
twenty-five  inches  inside.  Old  box,  3675  cubic  inches ;  new  box, 
3501  9/16  cubic  inches. 

Florida  orange  box,  twelve  by  twelve  by  twenty-four  and  one- 
half  inches  inside.  Half  box,  five  and  five-eighths  by  twelve  by 
twenty-four  and  one-half  inches. 

Apple  boxes  (W.  A.  Taylor).— The  following  table  shows 
legal  weight  to  the  bushel  of  apples  and  legal  sizes  of  the  apple 
boxes  and  barrels;  also  the  usual  standard  (not  legal)  size  of 
apple  boxes  and  the  heaped-bushel  expressed  in  cubic  inches  in 
such  states  as  have  expressed  the  capacity  of  the  heaped  bushel 
in  that  form. 

All  these  boxes  when  actually  used  are  subject  to  considerable 
variation  in  capacity,  resulting  from  the  use  or  non-use  of  cleats 
under  the  covers. 

Apple  Legislation 
Box  and  barrel  sizes  and  ^veights  per  bushel. 


rOI'XDS  PER  BU. 


KARREL  SIZE 


Arkansas 


Connecticut 
Florida  .  .  .  . 

Iowa    

Kansas    .  .  .  . 
Maine   


Maryland  .  . .  . 
Massachusetts 
Michigan 


Apples,  green,  50 


Apples 4S 

Apples,  green,  4S 

Apples 4S 

Apples,  green,  48 
Apples 44 


Apples   4S 

Apples 4S 


20"  X  12"  X  9" 
( lawful  bushel 
measure) . 


20"  X  11"  X  10" 
=  2,250  cu.  in. 
(stand,  bu.  box) 

2,212  cu.  in 


2,160  cu.  in. 


Heads,  IGV-" 
Stave,  281/2" 
Bulge,  64" 

Equals  3  bu. 
6,253%  cu.  in. 

Heads,  16i^" 
Stave,  27",  or 
Flour  barrel  size. 


540  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 


Apple  Legislation  —  Continued 


POUNDS  PER  BU. 


BARREL  SIZE 


Minnesota 
Missouri  . 


Nebraska  .  . 
New  Jersey 
New  York  .. 


Oregon   "  standard  box 

Oregon  "special  box". 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont   

Virginia   


Washington 
Wisconsin  .. 


Apples,  green,  50 
Apples  48 


Apples,  green,  48 

Apples 50 

Apples   48 


Apples 


Apples,  green,  50 

Apples   50 

Apples  46 

Apples 45 


Apples,  green,  45 
Apples  48 


18"   X    llVi"    X 

lOVs"   

20"  X  11"  X  10" 

18"   X    IIV2"    X 
101^". 


Heads,  IT^^" 
Stave,  28V2" 
Diameter  center 
inside,  201/2' 


Heads,  ITVs" 
Stave,  281/2" 
Bulge,  66" 

2,1731^  cu.  in. 
2,200  cu.  in. 
2%  bushels. 


Heads,  17i/s' 
Stave,  271/2" 
Bulge,  64" 


100  quarts. 


Other  Apple  Box  Sizes 


California   (40  pound)  . 
California    (50  pound)  . 

Canadian    ( legal )    

Colorado   

Washington  "  special  "  . 
Northwestern  "  special  " 


203/4"  X  10%"  X  9%" 
20%"  X  llVi"  X  10%" 
20"  X  11"  X  10" 
18"  X  11"  X  12" 
20"  X  11"  X  10" 
20"  X  12"  X  10" 


1,965  cubic  inches 
2,393  cubic  inches 
2,200  cubic  inches 
2,376  cubic  inches 
2,200  cubic  inches 
2,400  cubic  inches 


Legal  Heaped  Bushel  Capacities   (Apples) 


Connecticut  (heaped  bushel) 
Kansas  ( heaped  bushel ) . .  .  . 
Washington  (heaped  bushel) 


2,564  cubic  inches 
2,564  cubic  inches 
2,564  cubic  inches 


BOX  PACKING  OF  APPLES  IN  WASHINGTON  AND 
OREGON  (C.  S.  Wilson) 

Boxes. —  (a)  Standard,  ten  and  one-half  inches  by  eleven  and 
one-half  inches  by  eighteen  inches  inside  meas- 
urement. 
(h)  Special,  ten  inches  by  eleven  inches  by  twenty 
inches  inside  measurement. 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES         541 

Material.— Ends,  three-quarter  inch ;  sides,  three-eighths  inch ; 
tops  and  bottoms,  two  pieces  each,  one-quarter  inch  thick.  There 
should  be  two  cleats  for  each  top  and  bottom.  The  sides  of  the 
box  should  be  nailed  A\itli  four  nails  at  each  end  of  each  side. 
The  cleats  should  be  put  neatly  on  the  box,  and  four  nails  driven 
through  them,  and  through  the  top  or  bottom  into  the  ends. 
Five-penny  cement-coated  nails  are  preferable. 

Wrapping  paper. —  Any  of  the  following  grades  may  be 
used:  Light  manilla,  heavy-weight  tissue,  or  "white  news." 
The  size  of  the  wrapper  will  vary  somewhat,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  apple.  Two  sizes  should  be  ordered,  eight  inch  by 
ten  inch  and  ten  inch  by  ten  inch.  The  approximate  cost  of 
this  w^rapping  paper  would  be,  light  manilla,  and  heavy-weight 
tissue,  four  and  one-half  or  five  cents  per  pound,  or  about 
thirty-five  cents  per  thousand  sheets;  "white  news,"  three  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound,  or  about  thirty  cents  per  thousand 
sheets. 

Lining  paper. —  The  lining  paper  is  made  from  "white  news," 
size  eighteen  inches  by  twenty-four  inches.  The  approxi- 
mate cost  of  this  paper  would  be  three  and  one-half  cents 
per  pound,  or  about  one  dollar  and  fifteen  cents  per  thousand 
sheets. 

Layer  paper. —  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  layer  paper 
to  raise  the  pack  in  order  to  come  out  right  at  the  top.  For  this 
purpose  use  colored  tag-board,  size  seventeen  and  one-quarter 
inches  by  eleven  inches,  or  nineteen  and  one-half  inches  by  ten 
and  one-half  inches,  according  to  the  box.  The  approximate  cost 
of  this  paper  would  be  about  seven  dollars  and  fifty  cents  per 
thousand  sheets.  The  above  prices  were  quoted  before  the 
war. 

Packing.- —  Before  placing  the  apples  on  the  packing  table  they 
are  usually  graded  into  different  sizes.  This  facilitates  very 
nmch  the  work  of  the  packers.  A  sizer  may  be  used  at  the 
beginning,  but  one  soon  trains  the  eye  to  recognize  the  different 
grades.  The  diagonal  pack  is  preferable,  although  one  is  forced 
to  use  the  straight  pack  for  a  few  sizes. 

The  following  table  was  used  at  Hood  River,  Oregon,  in  the 
fall  of  1910.    (C.  I.  Lewis,  in  "Better  Fruits") : 


542  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Table  of  Commercial  Box  Packs 


SIZE — EXPRESSED    IX 

NUMBER 

NUMBER 

NUMBER   OF  APPLES 

TIER 

PACK 

OF  APPLES 

OF  LAYERS 

BOX  USED 

PER  BOX 

IN  ROW 

IN  DEPTH 

45 

3 

3  St. 

5-5 

3 

Standard 

54 

3 

3   St. 

6-0 

3 

Special 

63 

3 

3  St. 

7-7 

3 

Special 

64 

31/2 

2-2  Diag. 

4-4 

4 

Standard 

72 

31/2 

2-2  Diag. 

4-5 

Standard 

80 

31/2 

2-2   Diag. 

5-5 

Standard 

88 

31/2 

2-2   Diag. 

5-6 

Standard 

96 

31/2 

2-2   Diag. 

6-6 

Special 

104 

31/2 

2-2   Diag. 

6-7 

Special 

112 

31/2 

2-2   Diag. 

7-7 

Special 

120 

31/0 

2-2   Diag. 

7-8 

Special 

128 

4 

4  St. 

8-8 

Special 

144 

4 

4  St. 

9-9 

Special 

150 

41/2 

3-2   Diag. 

6-6 

5 

Standard 

163 

41/2 

3-2   Diag. 

6-7 

5 

Standard 

175 

4V2 

3-2   Diag. 

7-7 

5 

Standard 

188 

4V2 

3-2   Diag. 

7-8 

5 

Special 

200 

41/2 

3-2  Diag. 

8-8 

5 

Special 

PACKAGES  FOR  TRUCK   CROPS,  INCLUDING  STRAW- 
BERRIES 

L.    C.    CORBETT 

Potatoes. —  Truck  crop  potatoes  are  shipped  from  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  points  in  ventilated  barrels  holding  two  and  three- 
quarter  bushels ;  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  Gulf  States  in 
sacks  holding  one  hundred  and  ninety-five  pounds ;  from  Maine 
in  sacks  holding  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds,  and  from 
California  and  Colorado  sections  in  sacks  holding  one  hundred 
pounds  (everything  in  this  region  being  sold  by  net  weight 
rather  than  by  bushel).  In  northern  sections  of  Vermont,  New 
York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  potatoes  are  largely  sold  in  bulk  by 
M^eight  at  so  much  per  bushel.  During  the  cooler  portions  of  the 
year  sweet  potatoes  are  shipped  in  standard,  double-headed  bar- 
rels after  the  potatoes  are  cured. 

Cabbages. —  From  the  Atlantic  seaboard  states  south  of  Bal- 
timore are  shipped  either  in  crates  or  ventilated  barrels  holding 
two  and  three-quarter  bushels.  These  crates  are  usually  flat, 
about  three  feet  long.  In  the  North  crates  three  feet  square  are 
often  used  for  shipment  of  cabbage,  but  the  general  crop  grown 
for  storage  and  for  the  manufacture  of  kraut  is  sold  in  bulk  by 
the  ton  (heads  trimmed). 

Cauliflower. —  From  the  southern  fields  is  almost  universally 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES         543 

shipped  in  ventilated  barrels  packed  in  excelsior,  barrels  being 
standard  truck-crop-barrel  of  two  and  three-quarter  bushels. 
California  package  is  a  flat  carrier  holding  one  dozen  or  one 
and  one-half  dozen  heads. 

Brussels  sprouts  are  packed  in  quart  cups,  in  crates  holding 
thirty-two  cups. 

Tomatoes  from  eastern  states  in  crates,  holding  about  one 
bushel,  similar  to  those  used  for  the  shipment  of  muskmelons, 
dimensions  about  twelve  inches  by  twelve  inches  by  twenty-two 
inches.  Some  fruits  arrive  from  Florida  in  this  type  of  package, 
but  most  tomatoes  come  in  six-basket  carriers  similar  to  those 
used  for  peaches.  In  Texas  a  flat,  four-basket  carrier,  which  is 
only  one  tier  deep,  is  almost  universally  used. 

Onions  of  the  winter  sorts  are  shipped  either  in  ventilated 
barrels  or  standard  sacks  holding  about  two  and  three-quarter 
bushels,  or  one  hundred  pounds  weight.  The  Texas  Bermuda 
crop  is  universally  shipped  in  slatted  bushel  crates,  twenty 
inches  long,  twelve  inches  wide  and  twelve  inches  deep. 

Celery  from  the  Florida  section  is  packed  in  flat  crates  usu- 
ally eleven  inches  by  twenty  inches  by  twenty-four  inches.  The 
California  package  is  a  cubical  crate,  twenty-four  inches  by 
twenty-four  inches  by  twenty  inches.  Most  Eastern  sections  use 
the  California  type  of  package. 

Muskmelons  from  most  sections  arrive  in  a  veneer  crate  very 
similar  in  shape  to  the  orange  box,  but  somewhat  smaller,  the 
dimensions  being  approximately  twelve  inches  by  twelve  inches 
by  twenty-two  inches.  Some  sections  ship  melons  in  sixty-quart 
and  thirty-two  quart  berry  crates,  while  a  small  percentage  of 
the  crop  arrives  in  flat  carriers  arranged  to  hold  a  single  layer 
of  melons.  These  carriers  usually  contain  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  melons. 

Eggplants  are  usually  wrapped  in  paper  and  forwarded  in 
sixty-quart  berry  crates. 

Peas  are  shipped  largely  in  five-eighths  standard  Delaware 
baskets  with  ventilated  wood  covers,  or  in  barrel-high  Delaware 
baskets  with  ventilated  wood  covers. 

String  beans  (snap)  are  shipped  either  in  one-half  bushel  or 
barrel-high  Delaware  baskets. 

Beets  are  usually  pulled  when  two  or  two  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter  and  tied  in  bunches  of  three  to  six  beets  and  packed 
in  sixty-quart  berry  crates,  ventilated  barrels,  or  barrel-high 
Delaware  baskets,  depending  on  the  market  to  which  they  are 
consigned. 


544  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Water-cress  is  either  marketed  in  bunches  or  in  bulk  in  iced 
barrels,  or  in  iced  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets. 

Cucumbers  are  marketed  from  the  trucking  region  either  in 
ventilated  barrels,  barrel-high,  or  half  bushel  Delaware  baskets ; 
and  in  the  pickle-growing  districts  they  are  marketed  in  bulk 
by  the  hundred  weight. 

Lettuce  from  the  truck-farming  district  is  marketed  in 
either  half  bushel  or  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets  or  in  ven- 
tilated barrels.  The  barrel  package  is  not,  however,  generally 
used.  The  flat  carrier  of  the  same  type  as  that  used  in  Cali- 
fornia for  shipping  cauliflower  is  now  extensively  used  for 
lettuce. 

Spinach  is  almost  universally  marketed  from  the  truck-farm- 
ing sections  in  ventilated  barrels.  A  small  quantity  is  received 
in  barrel-high  Delaware  baskets. 

Okra  is  marketed  either  in  six-basket  carriers  or  in  a  special 
flat  carrier  without  baskets,  in  which  the  pods  are  carefully 
arranged  one  layer  wide.  These  packages  are  usually  about  two 
feet  long. 

Green  peppers  are  almost  universally  marketed  in  six-basket 
carriers. 

Radishes  are  tied  in  bunches  and  packed  in  one-bushel  or 
barrel-high  Delaware  baskets,  as  a  rule.  A  few  are  marketed  in 
ventilated  barrels. 

Strawberries  are  offered  in  quart  cups,  either  in  sixty-quart 
crates  from  the  Carolina  and  Norfolk  region,  or  in  twenty-four 
or  thirty-two  quart  crates  from  other  regions,  the  thirty-two 
quart  being  more  universally  used  than  any  other. 

Dimensions. —  The  truck  barrel  is :  Length  of  stave,  twenty- 
eight  and  one  half  inches,  between  heads,  twenty-six  inches; 
diameter  of  heads,  seventeen  and  one-half  inches ;  bulge  of  the 
barrel,  sixty-four  inches  over  all ;  thickness  of  stave,  four-tenths 
inch. 

The  eggplant  and  squash  crate  has  a  head  eleven  inches  by 
fourteen  inches,  and  is  twenty-four  inches  long. 

The  half-barrel  basket  commonly  used  in  the  Norfolk  region 
is  twenty  inches  high,  nine  and  one-half  inches  at  the  bottom,  and 
slats  twenty-six  inches  long,  outside  measure,  making  it  ten 
inches  by  fifteen  inches  by  seventeen  inches  by  twenty-four 
inches  inside. 

The  one-half  barrel  lettuce  basket,  called  the  "Delaware 
barrel-high  basket"  is  sixteen  inches  inside  diameter  at  the  top, 
nine  inches  inside  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  twenty-seven 


STANDAKD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  545 

inches  high.  The  flat  carrier  lettuce-box  is  seven  and  one-half 
inches  by  eighteen  inches  by  twenty-two  inches. 

The  cabbage  crate  which  comes  from  Norfolk  is  eleven  and 
one-half  inches  by  eighteen  inches  on  the  heads  and  is  thirty-six 
inches  long,  with  a  partition  in  the  middle. 

The  three-peck  basket  which  is  used  early  i;i  the  season  for 
shipping  peas,  beans,  cucumbers,  and  crookneck  squashes  is 
twenty  inches  high,  fourteen  inches  inside  measure  at  the  top, 
and  eight  and  one-half  inches  inside  measure  at  the  bottom. 

The  flat  onion  crate  with  partition  in  the  center  has  sixteen- 
inch  by  seven-inch  heads,  and  is  twenty-four  inches  long. 

WEIGHTS  OF  EVERYDAY  THINGS 

A  barrel  of  flour  w^eighs  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds. 

A  barrel  of  salt  weighs  two  hundred  and  eighty  pounds. 

A  barrel  of  beef  weighs  two  hundred  pounds. 

A  barrel  of  pork  weighs  two  hundred  pounds. 

A  barrel  of  fish  weighs  two  hundred  pounds. 

A  keg  of  powder  equals  twenty-five  pounds. 

A  stone  of  lead  or  iron  equals  fourteen  pounds. 

A  pig  of  lead  or  iron  equals  twenty-one  and  one-half  stone. 

Anthracite  coal  broken  —  cubic  foot  averages,  fifty-four 
pounds. 

A  ton  loose  occupies  forty  to  forty-three  cubic  feet. 

Bituminous  coal  broken  —  cubic  foot  averages,  forty-nine 
pounds. 

A  ton  loose  occupies  forty  to  forty-eight  cubic  feet. 

Cement  (hydraulic)  Rosendale,  weight,  p(M'  bushel,  seventy 
pounds. 

Cement  (hydraulic)  Louisville,  weight  per  l)ushel,  sixty-two 
pounds. 

Cement  (hydraulic)  Portland,  weight  per  bushel,  ninety-six 
pounds. 

Gypsum,  ground,  weight  per  bushel,  seventy  pounds. 

Lime,  loose,  weight  per  bushel,  seventy  pounds. 

Lime,  well  shaken,  weight  per  bushel,  eighty  pounds. 

Sand,  at  ninety-eight  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  per  bushel,  one 
hundred  and  twenty-two  and  one-half  pounds. 

18.29  bushels  equals  a  ton ;  1.181  tons  a  cubic  yard. 


546     THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

WEIGHTS  AND  HOUSEHOLD  MEASURES 

Forty-five  drops  of  water  is  a  teaspoonful. 

One  teaspoonful  equals  one  fluid  dram. 

One  dessertspoonful  equals  two  teaspoonfuls,  or  two  drams. 

One  tablespoonful  equals  two  dessertspoonfuls,  or  four  tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  equals  eight  teaspoonfuls,  or  one  fluid 
ounce. 

One  common  size  wineglassful  equals  two  ounces  or  one-half 
gill. 

One  coimnon  size  tumbler  holds  one-half  pint. 

A  small  teacup  is  estimated  to  hold  four  fluid  ounces  or  one 

gill. 

One  pound  of  wheat  is  equal  to  about  one  pint. 

One  pound  and  two  ounces  of  Indian  meal  is  equal  to  one 
quart. 

One  pound  of  sugar  is  equal  to  about  one  pint. 

A  pint  of  pure  water  is  about  a  pound. 

Table  to  estimate  wall  paper. —  An  ordinary  single  roll  of  wall 
paper  made  in  America  is  eight  yards  long  and  eighteen  inches 
wide.  A  double  roll  is  sixteen  yards  long.  Cartridge  or  Ingrain 
papers  are  thirty  inches  wide.  Borders  and  friezes  are  usually 
either  nine  or  eighteen  inches  wide,  and  eighteen  yards  long. 
Where  the  border  is  but  nine  inches  wide,  two  widths  are  usually 
furnished  on  a  roll. 

To  use  this  table,  first  measure  the  length  and  width  of  the 
room,  add  them  together  and  multiply  by  two.  You  then  have 
the  length  of  the  four  sides  of  the  room.  Then  measure  the 
height  of  the  room  and  add,  referring  to  the  table,  find  in  the 
first  column  the  figure  nearest  to  the  one  that  represents  the 
sum  of  the  four  sides.  Follow  this  line  across  to  the  column  that 
corresponds  to  the  height  of  your  room.  The  number  \\dll  be  the 
number  of  single  rolls  of  wall  paper  that  will  be  needed  to  cover 
the  walls,  not  making  any  allowance  for  doors  or  windows.  For 
each  door  or  w^indow  deduct  half  a  single  roll.  For  mantels  and 
fireplaces  deduct  a  single  roll  for  each  thirty-six  square  feet  of 
surface. 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 


547 


Number  of  Plants  for  an  Acre 


DISTANCE 

NUMBER 

DISTANCE 

NUMBER 

DISTANCE 

NI^MBER 

APART 

OF  PLANTS 

APART 

OF  PLANTS 

APART 

OF  PLANTS 

3      X3 

inches 

696,960 

4     x4      feet 

2,722 

13 

xl3 

feet 

257 

4     x4 

inches 

392,040 

4i^x4V2  feet 

2,151 

14 

xl4 

feel 

222 

6     x6 

inches 

174,240 

5     xl      feet 

8,712 

15 

xl5 

feet 

193 

0     xO 

inches 

77.440 

5     x2     feet 

4,356 

16 

xl6 

feet 

170 

1     xl 

foot 

43.560 

5     x3      feet 

2,904 

16 1/2x1 6 V>  feet 

160 

11/2x11/2 

feet 

19.360 

5     x4      feet 

2,178 

17 

xl7 

feet 

150 

2     xl 

feet 

21.780 

5     x5      feet 

1,742 

18 

xl8 

feet 

134 

2     x2 

feet 

10,890 

51/2x51/2  feet 

1,417 

19 

xl9 

feet 

120 

2V2X2% 

feet 

6,960 

6     x6      feet 

1,210 

20 

x20 

feet 

108 

3     xl 

feet 

14,520 

61/2x61^  feet 

1,031 

25 

x25 

feet 

69 

3     x2 

feet 

7,260 

7     x7     feet 

881 

30 

x30 

feet 

48 

3     x3 

feet 

4,840 

8     x8      feet 

680 

33 

x33 

feet 

40 

31/2x31/2 

feet 

3,555 

9     x9      feet 

537 

40 

x40 

feet 

27 

4     xl 

feet 

10,890 

10     xlO    feet 

435 

50 

x50 

feet 

17 

4     x2 

feet 

5,445 

11      xll    feet 

360 

60 

x60 

feet 

12 

4     x3 

feet 

3.630 

12     xl2    feet 

302 

66 

x66 

feet 

10 

Suitable  Distances  for  Planting 


Apples  —  Standard 

Apples  —  Dwarf   (bushes)    

Pears  —  Standard 

Pears  —  Dwarf 

Cherries  —  Standard   

Cherries  —  Dukes  and  IMorrellos 
Phims  —  Standard 


32  to  35  feet  apart  each  way 
10  feet  apart  each  way 
16  to  20  feet  apart  each  way 
10  feet  apart  each  way 
18  to  20  feet  apart  each  way 
16  to  18  feet  apart  each  way 
16  to  20  feet  apart  each  way 


548  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

Suitable  Distances  for  Planting  —  Continued 


Peaches  

Apricots 

Nectarines   .  . . 

Quinces 

Currants  

Gooseberries  .. 
Raspberries  .  . 
Blackberries  .. 
Grapes  


16  to  18  feet  apart  each  way 

16  to  18  feet  apart  each  way 

16  to  18  feet  apart  each  way 

10  to  12  feet  apart  each  way 

3  to    4  feet  apart  each  way 

3  to    4  feet  apart  each  way 

3  to    5  feet  apart  each  way 

6  to    7  feet  apart  each  way 

8  to  12  feet  apart  each  way 


To  estimate  the  number  of  plants  required  for  an  acre,  at  any 
given  distance,  multiply  the  distance  between  the  rows  by  the 
distance  between  the  plants,  which  will  give  the  number  of 
square  feet  allotted  to  each  plant,  and  divide  the  number  of 
square  feet  in  an  acre  (43,560)  by  this  number.  The  quotient 
will  be  the  number  of  plants  required. 

USEFUL  INFORMATION 

To  find  the  diameter  of  a  circle  multiply  circumference  by 
.31831. 

To  find  circumference  of  a  circle  multiply  diameter  by  3.1416. 

To  find  area  of  a  circle  multiply  square  of  diameter  by  .7854. 

To  find  surface  of  a  ball  multiply  square  of  diameter  by 
3.1416. 

To  find  side  of  an  equal  square  multiply  diameter  by  .8862. 

To  find  cubic  inches  in  a  ball  multiply  cube  of  diameter  by 
.5236. 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity  four 
times. 

Double  riveting  is  from  sixteen  to  twenty  per  cent  stronger 
than  single. 

One  cubic  foot  of  anthracite  coal  weighs  about  fifty-eight 
pounds. 

One  cubic  foot  of  bituminous  coal  weighs  from  forty-seven  to 
fifty  pounds. 

One  ton  of  coal  is  equivalent  to  two  cords  of  wood  for  steam 
purposes. 

A  gallon  of  water  (U.  S.  Standard)  weighs  eight  and  one-half 
pounds  and  contains  two  hundred  and  thirty-one  cubic  inches. 

There  are  nine  square  feet  of  heating  surface  to  each  square 
foot  of  grate  surface. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  contains  seven  and  one-half  gallons,  one 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty-eight  cubic  inches,  and 
weighs  sixty-two  and  one-half  pounds. 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  549 

Each  nominal  horsepower  of  a  boiler  requires  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  pounds  of  water  per  hour. 

Studding. —  Estimate  the  number  of  lineal  feet  of  partitions 
and  outside  walls  and  allow  one  stud  for  each  foot.  If  set  to  the 
customary  sixteen-inch  centers,  this  will  give  the  extra  studs 
necessary  for  doubling-  up  around  doors  and  windows. 

Covering  capacity  of  shingles. —  Shingles  of  the  average  size 
of  four  by  sixteen  inches  are  taken  as  a  basis  of  calculation : 

100  square  feet  will  require  laid  4  inches  to  the  weather. .  .  900 
100  square  feet  will  require  laid  4*4  inches  to  the  weather.  .  .  800 
100  square  feet  will  require  laid  5      inches  to  the  weather.  .  .      720 

One  thousand  shingles  require  three  and  one-half  pounds  of 
four-penny  nails. 

Five  to  ten  per  cent  should  be  allowed  to  these  figures  to  cover 
waste  and  shortage. 


Short  Cuts  in  Estimating  Ljltmber  for  Windows 

AND    DOOR.S 

Feet 

The  average  jamb  casing  for  windows     "%  inch  finisii 

The  average  jamb  casing  for  windows  IV^  inch  finish 

10 
12 
10 

12 

The  average  jamb  casing  for  doors  1 1/2  inch  finish   

The  average  jamb  casing  for  doors  2       inch  finish   . 

15 
20 

Outside  casings  for  windows     %  inch  finish 

g 

Outside  casings  for  windows  IVi  inch  finish.  .  . 

10 

Outside  casings  for  doors     %  inch  finish.  .  . 

10 

Outside  casings  for  doors  l'/4  inch  finish.. 

12 

Inside  window  trim  lineal  measure 

If) 

Inside  door  trim  lineal  measure  for  one  side 

Inside  door  trim  lineal  measure  foT  two  sides 

1() 
32 

On  estimating  flooring  and  ceiling  boards  the  following  should 
be  allowed  for  matching:  One-third  for  boards  of  three-inch 
width ;  oii,e-quarter  more  for  boards  of  four-inch  width ;  and  one- 
fifth  for  boards  of  six-inch  width. 

For  beveled  siding  make  no  allowance  for  openings  and  add 
one-quarter  more  for  four-inch  and  one-sixth  for  six-inch. 


POST-OFFICE  REGULATIONS  — DOMESTIC 

In  addition  to  the  States  and  Territories,  domestic  rates  apply 
to  the  Island  Possessions,  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  and  Shang- 
hai, China. 


550  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

All  mail  matter  except  seco7id-class  publications  mailed  by  pub- 
lishers or  neivs  agents  and  third  and  fourth-class  matter 
mailed  under  permits  must  be  wholly  or  in  part  prepaid  by 
postage  stamps. 

Letters  and  Postal  Cards  —  First  Class 

Letters  or  other  matter  wholly  or  partly  in  writing  or  type- 
writing, except  as  hereinafter  provided,  and  all  matter 
sealed  or  closed  against  inspection,  except  original  pack- 
ages of  proprietary  articles  in  simplest  mercantile  form, 
and  seeds  and  like  articles  in  transparent  envelopes,  to  be 
sent  beyond  the  office  where  deposited,  or  for  local  deliv- 
ery when  mailed  in  a  letter-carrier  post-office  or  rural 
delivery  —  one  rate  must  be  prepaid,  and  article  must  not 
weigh  over  four  pounds  —  each  ounce  or  fraction 02 

Drop  or  local  letters  deposited  in  other  than  a  letter-carrier 
office  or  rural  delivery  —  each  ounce  or  fraction 01 

Registered  Letters,  in  addition  to  the  regular  postage  which 
must  be  fully  prepaid 10 

Special  {or  Immediate)  Delivery  Letters,  in  addition  to 
regular  postage,  a  special  stamp  or  ten  cents  in  ordinary 
stamps  and  marked  special  delivery 10 

Postal  Cards 01 

Postal  Cards,  with  paid  reply 02 

Post  Cards,  conforming  to  prescribed  conditions 01 

Newspapers  and  Periodicals  —  Second  Class 

No  Limit  to  Weight  —  Except  to  Canada  (4  lbs.  6.  oz.) 

All  Neivspapers  and  other  Periodicals,  one  copy  to  each 
actual  subscriber,  residing  within  the  county  where  they 
are  printed,  wholly  or  in  part,  and  published,  except  those 
deliverable  at  letter-carrier  offices  or  rural  delivery free 

Neivspapers  and  Periodicals  to  regular  subscribers  and 
sample  copies,  each  pound  or  fraction 01 

Newspapers  (except  weeklies)  and  Periodicals  not  exceed- 
ing two  ounces  in  weight,  when  deposited  in  a  letter- 
carrier  office  or  rural  delivery  for  delivery  by  carrier, 
each  payable  by  stamps  affixed 01 

Periodicals  over  two  ounces  in  weight,  deposited  as  above, 
prepaid  by  postage  stamps  affixed,  each 02 

Weeklies,  deliverable  by  carriers,  at  letter-carrier  offices  or 
rural  delivery,  for  each  pound  or  fraction 01 


STANDARD  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES  551 

The  rates  stated  above  apply  only  to  second-class  publica- 
tions mailed  hy  the  'publishers  thereof  or  by  registered 
news-agents. 

Second-class  Matter,  when  posted  by  persons  other  than  the 
publisher  or  neAvs-agent,  for  each  four  ounces  or  fraction 
prepaid  hy  stamps 01 

Miscellaneous  Printed  Matter,  Etc.— Third  Class 

Pamphlets,  circulars,  occasional  publications,  photogi-aphs, 
proof-sheets  or  corrected  proofs,  and  manuscript  copy 
accompanying  the  same,  and  all  matter  on  paper  or  card- 
board wholly  in  print,  in  which  the  printing  forms  the 
principal  use,  and  not  exceeding  four  pounds  in  weight, 
for  each  tivo  ounces  or  fraction 01 

Books  (printed),  not  over  four  pounds  in  weight  (single 
volumes  may  be  over),  for  each  tivo  ounces  or  fraction. .     .01 

Merchandise  —  Fourth  Class 

Samples  of  metals,  ores,  minerals,  or  merchandise,  paint- 
ings in  oil  or  water,  crayon  drawings,  printed  envelopes, 
bill-heads,  letter-heads,  blotting-paper  with  or  without 
printed  advertisements  thereon,  blank  cards,  photograph 
albums,  blank  books,  blank  labels,  blank  tags,  playing 
cards ;  and  any  articles  not  of  the  other  classes,  and  not 
liable  to  damage  the  mails,  or  injure  any  person,  not  ex- 
ceeding four  pounds  in  weight,  for  each  ounce  or  fraction 
thereof  fully  prepaid 01 

Seeds,  cuttings,  bulbs,  roots,  and  cions,  for  each  tiro  ounces 
or  fraction 01 

Registration,  in  addition  to  regular  postage 10 

United  States  Money  Orders 

Not  exceeding  $100  on  one  order,  are  issued  on  papnent  of  the 
following  fees : 

Not  exceeding  $2.50 03 

Exceeding    $2.50  and  not  exceeding      $5.00 05 

Exceeding    $5.00  and  not  exceeding    $10.00 08 

Exceeding  $10.00  and  not  exceeding    $20.00 10 

Exceeding  $20.00  and  not  exceeding    $30.00 12 

Exceeding  $30.00  and  not  exceeding    $40.00 15 

Exceeding  $40.00  and  not  exceeding    $50.00 18 

Exceeding  $50.00  and  not  exceeding    $60.00 20 

Exceeding  $60.00  and  not  exceeding    $75.00 25 

Ex;ceeding  $75.00  and  not  exceeding  $100.00 30 


552  THE  HANDBOOK  FOR  PRACTICAL  FARMERS 

The  period  of  gestation  in  animals  varies  considerably,  but 
the  following  is  an  average  period  based  on  a  long  series  of 
observations : 

Average  Period  of  Gestation 


Elephant  

Camel 

Ass 

Mare ' 

Cow 

Sheep  

Goat 

Pig 

Bitch 

Cat 

Rabbit 

Gtiinea  pig  

Average  Period  op  Incubation 

Chickens 

Geese 

Ducks 

Turkeys  

Guinea  fowls   

Pheasants  

Ostriches 


2  years 
-12       months 

12       months 

1 1  months 
9  months 
6  months 
5  months 
C%  months 
9  weeks 
8  weeks 

30  days 

65  days 


20-22  days 

28-34  days 

28  days 

27-29  days 

28  days 

25  days 

40-42  days 


INDEX 


Apple,  cover  crops,  143;  culture,  142; 
fertilizer,  143;  fillers,  142;  har- 
vesting, 144;  location,  140; 
planting,  141,  142;  pruning,  142, 
143;  renovating,  144;  soil,  140; 
sprays,  149;  storage,  144;  trees, 
141;  thinning,  143,  144;' varie- 
ties, 141;  winter  protection,  144. 

Bees,  behavior,  3S9,  300;  diseases,  392, 
393;  equipment,  389;  honey 
flow,  391,  392;  location,  3SS, 
389;  race,  392;  value,  393,  394; 
what  the  beekeeper  does,  390. 

Blackberry,  cultivation,  167;  fertilizing, 
167;  location,  167;  planting, 
167;  soil,  167;  training,  168; 
winter   protection,   168,   169. 

Buildings,  location  and  arrangement, 
barns,  406;  carpenter  shop, 
407;  closets,  407;  esthetic  sug- 
gestions, 403;  garage,  408. 

Barley,  classification,  75,  76;  cultural 
methods,  76;  desirable  quali- 
ties, 76 ;  harvesting,  76,  77 ; 
range,  75,  76;  seeding,  76;  uses, 
77. 

Cherries,  diseases,  155;  distance  of  plant- 
ing, 154;  fertilizers,  154;  gen- 
eral culture,  155;  insects,  155; 
other  enemies,  155;  pruning, 
154,  155. 

Chickens,  breed,  223 ;  breeding,  223,  224 ; 
breeding  hen,  224;  breeding 
male,  224;  breeding  stock,  233, 
234;  culling,  228;  farm  flocks. 
223;  pure  bred  stock,  224; 
"seed  plot"  breeding  place,  224- 
227;  trap  nests,  227,  228. 

—  diseases,  238;  biunblefoot,  238;  can- 
ker, 238 ;  catarrh  and  colds,  238 ; 
chicken-pox,  238;  constipation, 
238;  cholera,  238;  diarrhoea, 
238;  dysentery,  238;  egg-bound, 
238;  favus,  238;  feather-eating. 
239;  frozen  head,  239;  leg  weak- 
ness. 239;  limberneck.239;  liver 
trouble,  239;  roup,  239;  scaling 
leg,  239;  tuberculosis,  239,  240. 


—  feeding,  229;  chicks,  231;  grain  and 

mash,  230,  231 ;  laying  hen,  229; 
laying  ration,  229,  230;  mash, 
230;  scratch  grain,  230. 

—  housing,  234;  artificial  lights, 236. 237; 

colony  house,  236;  equipment, 
235,236;  laying  house,  2.34,2.35. 

—  incubation,  241;  good  incubation,  241 ; 

incubator  pointers,  241. 

—  keeping  eggs,  242,  243;  picking  poul- 

try, 243. 

—  pointers,  brooding,  241;  fattening  for 

market,  233;  hover  tempera- 
ture, 241;   stove,  241. 

—  sanitation,  237  ;cleanliness,237;  home- 

made disinfectant,  237,  238. 

—  troubles,   240;    bacillary   white   diar- 

rhoea, 240;  coccidiosis,  240; 
diarrhoea,  240;  gapes,  240;  pre- 
vention, 238. 

—  vermin,  240;  lice,  240;  mites,  240,  241. 

Concrete,  examples  of,  427,  428;  mate- 
rial, 424;  tools,  424-426;  prac- 
tical hints,  428,  429. 

Corn,  adaptation  to  climate,  48;  classifi- 
cation, 47;  climate  and  produc- 
tion, 48. 

—  cultural  methods,  57;  cultivation,  59, 

60;  diseases  and  insects,  62; 
harvesting,  60,  61;  planting,  58, 
59;  preparation  of  seed  bed,  57, 
58. 

—  improvement,  51 ;   barnyard  manure, 

56;  introduction  of  varieties, 
51-53;  limes,  57;  mineral  fer- 
tilizers, 56,  57;  pedigree  selec- 
tion, 53;  rotations,  54,  55;  seed 
storage,  53. 

—  relation  of  soil  and  production,  48; 

production  in  U.  S.,  46;  world's 
corn  crop,  46;  varieties,  49-51. 
Cotton,  climatic  requirements.  135,  136; 
cultivation,  138;  diseases.  138; 
enemies,  137,  138;  fertilizers, 
138;  insects,  138;  seedage,  136, 
137;  soil  requirements,  135; 
two  classes,  135. 


[  563] 


554 


INDEX 


Curing  meats,  corned  beef,  383,  384 ;  cur- 
ing pork,  hams,  380;  bacon, 
tongues,  382;  dry  cured  pork, 
382,  383;  keeping  fresh  meats, 
379 ;  salt  pork  brine,  382 ;  smok- 
ing meats,  384-386. 

Currants,  diseases,  175;  fertilizers,  173; 
insects,  174;  location,  172; 
planting,  172,  173;  pruning, 
173;  soil,  172. 

—  currants   (black),  173;  pi-uning,  173. 
Dairy   Cattle,   breeds   of,   288;    Ayrshire 

breed  and  characteristics,  291- 
295;  BrowTi  Swiss,  301,  302; 
dual  purpose  breeds,  299-301; 
Devon  breed,  304;  Dutch  belted, 
297;  French  Canadian,  297,  298; 
Guernsey  breed,  291;  Holstein- 
Fresian,  295-297;  Jersey  breed 
and  origin,  288-291;  Kerry,  298, 
299;   Red  Polled,  302-304. 

—  diseases  of,  311;  blackleg,  312;  bleed- 

ing, 312;  bloating,  311 ;  chapped 
teats,  312;  choking,  312;  consti- 
pation, 312;  garget,  312;  indi- 
gestion, 312;  inflammation  of 
udder,  312;  losing  cud,  312; 
scours,  312. 

—  judging,  304,  305;  bulls,  306;  descrip- 

tion, good  dairy  cow,  305,  306; 
faults,  306. 

—  management,  307;   calf  stables.  311; 

dairy  cow,  308,  309;  dairy  ra- 
tions, 310;  feeding  dairy  cow, 
309,  310;  herd  bull,  307*;  rais- 
ing calves,  311. 

Ducks,  Indian  Runners,  243,  244;  Pekins, 
243;   young  ducklings,  244. 

Engines  (kerosene  and  gasoline),  inter- 
nal combustion  troubles,  454, 
455;  tractor,  452-454;  trouble 
chart,  455,  456. 

Explosives,  attaching  blasting  cap,  446- 
448;  blasting,  446;  bore  holes, 
449;  cutting  dynamite  cart- 
ridge, 449;  detonation,  446;  fir- 
ing, 450,  451;  hauling  and  stor- 
ing, 445,  446;  loading,  449; 
opening  cases,  446 ;  practical  in- 
structions, 451 ;  priming  with 
cap  and  fuse,  446;  priming 
cartridge,  448,  449 ;  saving  man 
power,  444;  saving  time,  445; 
tamping,  449,  450. 

Federal  Farm  Loan  System,  benefits,  482, 
483 ;  borrowing  money,  481,  482 ; 
mortgage,  480,  481. 


Fence  Posts,  prolonging,  470-473. 
Forage  and  Soiling  Crops,  definition  of, 

84;    distribution,  84;    varieties, 

84,  85. 

—  alfalfa,  103;  lime  and  fertilizers,  105; 

regions  adapted  to,  103;  seed- 
ing, 103;  soil  adapted  to,  103; 
varieties,  105. 

—  bent  grasses,  92. 

—  brown  grass,  95,  96;    seed  and  seed- 

ing, 96;   value,  96,  97. 

—  Canada  blue  grass,  95. 

—  clover,  100;  alsike  seed  and  seedage, 

101;  crimson,  amount  per  acre, 
101;  Japan,  annual,  102;  sweet, 
seed  and  seedage,  varieties,  102, 
103;  white,  amount  per  acre, 
101. 

—  cow  peas,  107;  adapted  to,  107;  soils, 

107. 

—  field    peas,     107;     adapted    to,    107; 

amount  per   acre,   107. 
• —  hay-making,  108;  proper  curing,  108; 
storing,     109;     weather     condi- 
tions,  108. 

—  Kentucky  blue  grass,  93;    seeds  and 

seedage,  94,  95 ;  value  and  adap- 
tation, 93. 

—  medium  red  clover,  100;   characteris- 

tics, 100;  seeds  and  seedage, 
100;  time  to  cut,  100;  value, 
100. 

—  orchard  grasses,  92;   advantages  and 

disadvantages,  93;  seed  and 
seedage,  93;  soil  and  climate, 
92. 

—  red-top,  91;  seed  and  seedage,  91,  92; 

soil  and  climate,  91 ;  value  and 
uses,  92. 

—  secondary  grasses,  97;  inoculation,  99; 

legumes,  98,  99;  millets,  97; 
sorghums,  97;   Soudan,  97. 

—  soy  beans,   105;    for  hay,    106;    food 

value,  107;  securing  seed,  106; 
time  for  maturity,  106. 

—  timothy,  90;   fertilizer  and  lime,  89, 

90;  life  history,  91;  methods  of 
seeding,  87,  88;  mixture  with 
clover,  90,  91;  pasturing,  90; 
rate  of  seeding,  89;  rotation, 
86,  87;  seeds,  87;  seed  bed,  88, 
89;  time  to  cut,  90;  yields,  90. 

—  vetches,  107;   amount  per  acre,  107; 

time  for  cutting,  107;  varieties, 
107. 


INDEX 


555 


Fruit,  age  of  bearing,  157,  158;  apray 
machinery,  196,  197;  varieties 
for   diflferent  districts,    158-166. 

Fungicides,  ammoniacal  copper  carbon- 
ate,    187;     Bordeaux    mixture, 

188,  189;    corrosive   sublimate, 

189,  190;  copper  sulphate  wash, 
189;  formalin,  190;  hellebore, 
190;  iron  sulphide  mixture, 
190;  lime  sulphur,  191-193; 
potassium  sulphide,  193;  resin- 
lime  mixture,  194;  sulphur, 
194. 

Geese,  244. 

Gooseberry,  cultivation  of,  173;  diseases, 
175;  general  culture,  173,  174; 
insects,  175. 

Grapes,  cultivation,  182;  diseases,  186; 
fertilizers,  182;  insects,  185; 
location,  181;  planting,  181; 
pruning,  182,  183;  soil,  181; 
training,  185;  winter  protec- 
tion, 185. 

Harness,  cleaning  with  saddle  soap,  461, 
462;  oiling  leather,  462,  463; 
repair  outfit,  463;  stitching, 
463,  464. 

Horse,  adjustment  of  harness,  276,  277; 
care  of  harness,  277;  fitting  col- 
lar, 277;  sore  shoulder,  277; 
bedding,  274,  275;  blanketing, 
273,  274;  breeding,  brood  mare, 
258;  care  of,  260-262;  season  of 
year,  259,  260;  selecting  stal- 
lion, 258,  259 ;  care  of  feet,  275, 
276;  care  of  teeth,  275;  clip- 
ping, 273;  cost  of  rations,  271; 
diseases,  284;  hots,  285;  bron- 
chitis. 286;  chills,  285;  cold  in 
head,  286;  constipation,  285; 
cough,  286;  cramp  colic,  284; 
diarrhoea,  285;  fever,  285; 
heaves,  286,  287;  nail  in  foot, 
287;  overloading  stomach,  284; 
pin  worms.  285;  pneumonia, 
286;  stomach  worms,  285; 
stocking  of  legs,  287. 

—  feeding  and  care  of,  266;  alfalfa,  270; 
amount  of  feed,  266;  barley, 
rye  and  wheat,  269;  bitting, 
280,  281;  bran,  270;  clover, 
268;  corn,  268;  corn  and  oats, 
268,  269;  cornstalks,  270,  271; 
feeding  idle  horse,  271,  272; 
grains.  26S;  grooming,  272, 
273;  hay  and  forage,  270;  har- 
nessing,'   281,     282;      hitching 


single,  282,  283;  linseed  meal, 
269;  molasses,  269;  patent 
food,  269,  270;  roots  and  tubers, 
271;  salting  horse,  272;  silage, 
271;  teaching  to  lead,  279,280; 
timothy,  270;  training  and 
breaking,  283,  284;  training  and 
breaking  colts,  277-279;  train- 
ing to  use  of  bit,  280;  watering, 
order  of,  266,  267. 

—  tvpes  and  breeds,  American  saddler, 

249;  Arabian,  248,  249;  Bel- 
gian, 253,  254;  Clydesdale,  254, 
255;  coach,  250;'  draft,  252; 
French  coach,  251;  French 
draft,  253;  German  coach,  2.52; 
hackney,  250,  251;  light  type, 
247;  mule,  256,  257;  Percheron, 
253;  ponies,  256;  Shire,  255; 
SuiTolk,  256;  thoroughbred, 
247;  standard  bred,  249,  2.50; 
young  foal,  262;  diseases,  263, 
264;  feeding,  262,  263;  wean- 
ing, 265. 

Insecticides,  arsenate  of  lead,  187;  arse- 
nate of  lime,  187,  188;  carbon 
bisulphide,  189;  crude  petrole- 
um, 190;  dry  lime  sulphur,  195, 
196;  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  190; 
kerosene,  190,  191 ;  kerosene 
emulsion,  191;  lime  sulphur, 
191,  193;  miscible  oil,  193; 
Paris  green,  193;  pyrethrum, 
193;  resin-lime  mixture,  194; 
soap,  194;  tangle-foot,  194;  to- 
bacco, 194;  whale  oil  soap,  194, 
195. 

Land  drainage,  evidences  of  need  of,  32; 
causes  of  wet  lands.  32,  33; 
overflow  of  streams,  33;  struc- 
ture of  .soil,  32;  contract  sys- 
tem of,  44. 

—  liming,  application  of,  30,  31;  kinds, 

29,  30;  value  of,  30;  when 
needed,  29. 

■ —  drains,  arrangement  and  depth,  39, 
40;  beneficial  efTects  of,  34;  busi- 
ness proposition,  44,  45;  open, 
36;  outlet,  42;  silt  wells,  43; 
slopes,  40;  suitable  grades,  36; 
tools,  43;  types  of,  34;  wet 
lands,  extent  of,  33. 

Milk,  Babcock  test,  3.39;  acid,  340;  acid 
measure,  339;  adding  acid,  341; 
adding  water,  342;  balance, 
344;  centrifuging  bottles,  341; 
centrifugal  machine,  339,  340; 


§S6 


INDEX 


completing  test,  345,  346; 
cream  test  bottles,  344;  imper- 
fect tests,  343,  344;  measuring, 
340,  341;  milk  pipette,  339; 
mixing  acid,  341;  preparing 
cream,  344,  345;  reading  the 
percentage,  342,  343;  skim  milk 
test  for  fat,  346-348;  speed  of 
centrifuge,  341,  342;  testing  for 
cream,  344;  test  bottles,  339; 
testing  strength  of  acid,  340; 
weighing  the  charge,  345. 

—  bacterial   count,   314;    boiling  water, 

sterilization,  324;  bottling,  315. 

—  butter-making,  332 ;  churn,  333 ;  cool- 

ing, 333,  334;  packages,  335; 
ripening,  332;  washing,  salting, 
working,  334,  335;  cans,  wash- 
ing, 322;  care  of  cans,  323; 
cooler,  types  of,  318,  319;  cool- 
ing, 315. 

—  cream  separator,  330;  cleaning,  332; 

care  of,  330;  foundation,  330, 
331;  principle  of  centrifugal 
operation,  330;  size,  329;  types, 
328,  329. 

—  cheese,  335;  American,  335,  336;  cut- 

ting, 336;  curing,  337;  mold- 
ing, 336;   pressing,  336,  337. 

cottage,     337;     cutting,     heating, 

stirring,  337,  338;  drawing, 
338;   pasteurization,  338. 

—  ice,  .320;  use,  320;  ice  supply,  322. 

—  milk  house,  316,  317. 

—  milking  machine,  324;  cleaning,  ster- 

ilizing, 327,  328;  diseases,  con- 
tagious, 326;  economic  value, 
324;  labor,  324,  325;  stripping, 
325,  326;  speed,  326. 

—  separator,   gravity,    316;    separating 

cream,  316;  shipping,  321,  322; 
spring  water  cooling,  320; 
steam,  sterilization,  322,  323; 
straining,  315;  tanks,  cooling, 
319,  320;  tanks,  size  of,  320; 
construction  of,  320;  utensils, 
316;  sterilization  of,  322. 

Oats,  cultural  methods,  71,  72;  classifi- 
cation, 71 ;  desirable  qualities, 
71;  distribution,  71;  harvest- 
ing, 73;  market  grades,  73,74; 
origin,  70;  range  of,  70,  71; 
rate  of  seeding,  72;  treatment 
for  smut,  72,  73;  time  of  seed- 
ing, 72. 

Peaches,  cultivation,  156;  disease,  157; 
planting,    156;    pruning,    156; 


soils,  155;  site,  155,  156;  thin- 
ning, 157. 

Pear,  cultivation,  151;  fertilizers,  152; 
harvesting,  152;  insects,  152, 
153;  planting,  151;  pruning, 
152;  soil,  152;  thinning,  152. 

Pests  and  their  control,  ants,  house,  495- 
498;  Criddle  mixture,  499; 
dogs,  prairie,  494;  effective  so- 
lutions, 499;  fly,  stable,  498, 
499;  grasshoppers,  499;  go- 
phers, pocket,  492 ;  Kansas  bait, 
499;  mice,  meadow,  490-492; 
moles,  495;  mosquitoes,  495; 
rabbits,  495;  rats,  common, 
490-492;  rat,  cotton,  499; 
sprays,  499;  squirrels,  Califor- 
nia, 494;  squirrels,  Richardson, 
ground,  493,  494;  squirrel, 
ground,  492,  493;  woodchuck, 
494. 

Pigeons,  248. 

Plums,  cover  crops,  154;  disease,  154; 
general  culture,  153;  soils,  153; 
thinning,   15^. 

Potatoes,  commercial  fertilizer,  121-123; 
cultivation,  126;  disease,  128, 
129;  harvesting,  126,  127;  in- 
sects, 128,  129;  propagation, 
124;  rotation,  120;  setting, 
125;  soil,  119;  storage,  127, 
128;  transplanting,  125;  varie- 
ties, 123. 

—  sweet  potatoes,  commercial  fertilizer, 

121-123;  cultivation,  126;  dis- 
ease, 128,  129;  harvesting, 
128,  129;  insects,  128,  129;.  pre- 
paration of  soil,  121;  propaga- 
tion, 124;  rotation,  120;  set- 
ting, 125;  soil,  119;  storage, 
127,  128;  transplanting,  125; 
varieties,  123. 

—  white  potatoes,  climate,  110;  commer- 

cial fertilizer,  113;  cultivation, 
115;  grading,  116;  harvesting, 
116;  seed,  114;  soil.  111;  stor- 
ing, 116;  treating,  114;  varie- 
ties, 114;  yield,  110. 

Quince,  157;  general  culture,  157. 

Raspberries  (black),  disease,  171;  gen- 
eral culture,  170,  171;  insects, 
171. 

Raspberries  (red),  cultivation,  169;  dis- 
ease, 171;  fertilizers,  169;  in- 
sects, 171;  location,  169;  plant- 
ing, 169;  pruning,  169;  floil, 
169;  training,  170. 


I 


INDEX 


557 


Records,  accounts,  484;  construction  of, 
485-488;  continuing  the  ac- 
counts, 489;  finding  profit  or 
loss,  4SS;  methods,  4S4,  485; 
procedure,  485;  profits,  488, 
489. 

Repair  shop,  equipment,  46S,  469;  points 
of  value,  4G5,  466;  soldering 
outfit,  466,  467. 

Roads,  dirt  roads,  478,  479;  drainage, 
474,  475;  grades,  474;  gravel, 
476;  macadam,  478;  side 
ditches,  475;  stone  roads,  476- 
478;  subdrainage,  475,  476; 
Telford  consti-uction,  478;  water 
breaks,  475. 

Rye,  classification,  77;  cultural  methods, 
78;  harvesting,  78;  improve- 
ment, 79,  80;  light  vs.  heavy 
seed,  80,  81;  origin,  77;  pests, 
81-83;  rotation,  79;  uses,  78,79. 

Sheep,  care  and  mangement,  356-358; 
diseases,  bloating,  363;  consti- 
pation, 363;  cold,  363;  diar- 
rhoea, 363;  scab,  363;  worms, 
stomach,  363. 

—  founding   flock,    354-356;    marketing, 

362,  363;  market  classification, 
354;  pasture  roughages,  359- 
362. 

—  types  and  breeds,  349;  Cheviot,  Tunis, 

Suffolk,  Devon,  353;  Delaine, 
Merinos,  Rambouillets,  349;  fine 
wool,  American  Merinos,  349; 
long  wool  breeds,  Lincoln,  Leices- 
ter, Cotswold,  353;  medium  wool 
or  mutton  breeds,  349;  Shrop- 
shire, Hampshire,  Oxford, 
Southdown,  Dorset  Horn,  349, 
350;  lesser  known  breeds.  Kara- 
kul, Arabi,  354;  wool,  358,  359; 
Shiran,  Shetland,  Big  Horn, 
Barbados,  355. 
Soil  management,  adapted  to,  2;  dis- 
tinguished by,  1,  2;  good,  1; 
intelligent  use,  1;  inorganic 
matter,  1 ;  organic  matter,  1 ; 
poor,  1. 

—  fertilizer  materials,  bone  phosphate. 

25;  carriers,  23;  corumon.  21; 
composition  of,  25;  nitrogen, 
23;  potash,  24;  phosphoric  acid, 
24;  sources  of,  24.  25. 

—  green  manuring  crops,  20;  classes  of, 

20,  21;  home  mixing,  28;  in- 
struments,  14-16. 


—  manure,  commercial,  16,17;  applying, 

19;  grain  and  livestock,  17; 
hauling,  17;  returns,  20;  stable 
manure,  17. 

—  mixed  fertilizer,  25;   composition  of, 

25;  value,  25,  26. 

—  plowing,  12;  depth,  12;  types  of  plowa, 

14;  use  of  coulter,  13. 

—  pore  space  and  soil  moisture,  4;  pro- 

portion of,  5;  sub-soiling,  14,  15. 

—  quantity  and  kind  of  fertilizers,  26; 

varies  for  kinds  of  crops,  27,  28. 

—  soil    requirements,   nitrogen,   21,   22; 

phosphoric  acid,  21,  22;  potash, 
21,  22. 

—  soil  moisture  and  crop  production,  5 ; 

amount  of  water  required,  7; 
amount  retained,  8;  how  to  re- 
tain, 8,  9. 

—  tilth  and  tillage,  9;  drainage,  9;  freez- 

ing and  thawing,  11;  humus, 
10;  lime,  11. 

—  texture  and  structure, 2;  classification, 

2,  3;  changes  in,  3;  methods  of 
treatment,  4;   weight,  2,  3. 

—  trade  values  (calculating  and  comput- 

ing), 26. 

Strawberries,  cultivation,  179;  diseases, 
ISO;  fertilizers,  176;  insects, 
180;  planting,  176,  177;  row 
systems,  178;  soils,  175;  varie- 
ties, 178,  179;  watering,  179. 

Swine,  breeds,  364-367;  butchering  and 
curing,  375;  cutting,  curing,  dry 
curing,  brine  curing,  377;  cas- 
tration, 368;  crates  for,  371. 

—  diseases,  377;  cholera,  378;  constipa- 

tion, 377;  cold,  377;  diarrlitra, 
377;  fits,  377;  indigestion,  377; 
rheumatism,  378;  snuflBes,  377; 
worms,  378. 

—  feeds,  368;  corn,  wheat,  barley,  368; 

forage  crops,  garbage,  milk, 
tankage,  369;  stock  food.  369. 
-  feeding,  370;  brood  sows,  370;  fatten- 
ing hogs.  370;  farrowing,  370; 
wintering  breeding  stock,  370; 
young  pigs,  370. 

—  houses,  371;  movable,  centralized,  375. 

—  management  of  sow  and  pigs,  367,  368; 

selection  of  breeding  stock,  367; 
self  feeders,  371;  types,  364; 
weight,  371. 
Tobacco,  cultivation,  134;  curing.  1.34; 
fiMtilizcrs,  1.32;  harvesting,  1.34; 
kinds,  130;  management,  131, 
132;   seed  bed,  133;   soils,  131; 


558 


INDEX 


transplanting,  133,  134;  varie- 
ties, 130,  131. 

Tools,  care  of,  458,  459;  equipment,  460; 
house,  459;  loss  of,  457,  458. 

Trees,  shrubs  and  plants,  planting  plan, 
409;  arrangement  of,  412-414; 
functions  of,  409,  410;  how  to 
plant,  414;  planting,  409;  spe- 
cial purposes,  414-416;  lake 
front,  415;  street,  414;  speci- 
men, 415;  wind  breaks,  415. 

—  annuals,  421,  422;   cut  flowers,  421; 

garden,  421,  422;  vines,  422. 
■ —  perennials,  419,  420;  general  planting, 
419;  German  iris,  421;  peonies, 
420;  perennials,  hardy,  422, 
423;  phlox,  420;  planting  plan, 
__  409. 

—  roses,  418;    hardy  bush,  418;   hardy 

climbing,  418;  hybrid  perpet- 
uals,  418;   landscape,  418. 

—  shrubs,  special  purposes,  416-418;  bor- 

der planting,  416;  hedges,  416; 
lake  front,  417;  sandy  soils, 
417;  shady  situations,  417; 
specimens,  417. 

■ —  vines,  419;  covering  walls,  419;  climb- 
ing, 419;   flowering,  419. 

Turkeys,  244,  245. 

Vegetables,  cold  frame,  201;  fertilizers, 
198;  garden  plans,  205-207; 
hardening  plants,  204;  hot -bed, 
199,  200;  soil,  preparation,  198; 
tools,  199. 

—  storing,  211;  cellar,  212-214;  construc- 

tion of,  214;  diseases,  218,  219; 
insects,  215-217;  outdoor  stor- 
age, 211,  212;  temperature 
table,  219-222. 
Water  on  farm,  amount  of,  434,  435; 
equipment,  430;  fixtures,  430. 

—  operating  pumps,  435-443 ;  hand  wind- 

mill, power,  436,  437 ;  hydraulic 
ram,  437,  438;  construction  of, 
438;  operation  of,  439;  selec- 
tion of,  439,  440. 

—  source  of  supply,  430,  431 ;  deep  wells, 

431;  drilled  wells,  433;  driven 
wells,  431;  shallow  wells,  430, 
431. 


—  selecting  system,  435;   gravity,  435; 

pneumatic  pressure,  435. 

Weeds  and  their  control,  introduction, 
500-510;  fifty  worst  weeds,  511- 
532;  losses,  511. 

Standard  weights  and  measures,  weights 
and  measures,  533;  apple  boxes, 
539;  barbed  wire  required,  536; 
dimensions,  544;  distances  for 
planting,  547,  548;  equipment 
and  material  for  packing,  541; 
estimates,  534;  estimating  hay, 
535;  fruit  packages,  538;  ges- 
tation periods,  552;  household 
measures,  546;  incubation  peri- 
ods, 552;  land  measurements, 
534-536;  legal  weights,  537; 
measuring  corn,  535;  measur- 
ing in  bulk,  534;  number  of 
plants  per  acre,  547;  post  office 
regulations,  549-551. 

—  packages    for,    beets,    543;     Brussels 

sprouts,  543;  cabbage,  542; 
cauliflower,  542,  543;  celery, 
543 ;  cucumbers,  544 ;  egg  plants, 
543;  green  peppers,  544;  let- 
tuce, 544;  muskmelons,  543; 
onions,  543;  okra,  544;  peas, 
543;  potatoes,  542;  radish, 
544;  spinach,  544;  strawberries, 
544;  string  beans,  543;  toma- 
toes, 543;  useful  information, 
548,  549;  water  cress,  544; 
weight,  seed,  536,  537. 

—  wall  paper,  estimate,  546,  547 ;  weights 

for  barn,  534;  weight  of  cattle, 
535;  weight,  every  day  things, 
545. 

Wheat,  choice  of  variety,  66,  67;  classi- 
fication, 64;  harvesting,  68; 
market  grades,  68,  69;  method 
of  seeding,  68;  mineral  fertiliz- 
ers, 68;  origin,  63;  range  of, 
64;   rate  of  planting,  67;   time  j 

of  seeding,  67,  68;  uses  of,  69;  • 

world's  wheat  crop  ( 1907-1916) , 
63. 

Wood  lot,  improvements,  396-398;  mar- 
keting, 400-402 ;  protection,  395, 
396;  reforestation,  399,  400; 
value,  395. 


(1) 


-iJsrjiv 


465338 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


